feat: improvement

src/analysis/calibrate.rs

@@ -28,18 +28,19 @@
 use std::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet};
 use std::path::PathBuf;
 
+use crate::SCHEMA_VERSION;
 use crate::assessment::AssessmentFile;
-use crate::bank::BankFile;
+use crate::calibration::{CalibrationFile, Measurement, MeasurementFile, MeasurementMeta};
 use crate::catalog::Catalog;
 use crate::classical::{self, Analysis, ItemAnalysis, Thresholds};
 use crate::date::Date;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::irt::{self, Fit};
-use crate::item::{Calibration, IrtParams, OptionStat};
+use crate::item::{Calibration, IrtParams, Item, OptionStat, VariantCalibration};
+use crate::layout::Layout;
 use crate::responses::ResponseSet;
 use crate::store::Store;
 use crate::taxonomy::Flag;
-use crate::yaml;
 
 /// What calibration would change about one item.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -267,6 +268,35 @@ pub fn plan(catalog: &Catalog, store: &Store, opts: &Options) -> Result<Plan> {
         ));
     }
 
+    // Splitting by option set means an item administered three times with three
+    // different sets has three cells of 24 rather than one of 72. That is the
+    // honest picture, and it is worth saying out loud rather than leaving
+    // someone to read an IRT fit that was never possible.
+    for (uid, appearances) in &by_item {
+        let mut sizes: Vec<usize> = Vec::new();
+        for (_, analysis) in appearances {
+            if analysis.variant.is_some() {
+                sizes.push(analysis.n);
+            }
+        }
+        if sizes.len() > 1 {
+            let distinct: BTreeSet<&str> = appearances
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|(_, a)| a.variant.as_deref())
+                .collect();
+            if distinct.len() > 1 {
+                warnings.push(format!(
+                    "{uid}: {} option sets across {} administrations, largest n = {}. \
+                     Statistics are kept per set, because a stem shown with different \
+                     distractors is a different item.",
+                    distinct.len(),
+                    appearances.len(),
+                    sizes.iter().copied().max().unwrap_or(0)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     let mut changes = Vec::new();
 
     for (uid, appearances) in &by_item {
@@ -304,6 +334,12 @@ pub fn plan(catalog: &Catalog, store: &Store, opts: &Options) -> Result<Plan> {
             option_stats: pooled.option_stats.clone(),
             irt: irt_params,
             flags: pooled.flags.clone(),
+            variants: variant_records(&entry.item, appearances, previous_variants(entry)),
+            options: BTreeMap::new(),
+        };
+        let calibration = Calibration {
+            options: option_histories(&calibration.variants),
+            ..calibration
         };
 
         let previous = entry.item.calibration.as_ref();
@@ -580,60 +616,123 @@ fn diff_calibration(previous: Option<&Calibration>, next: &Calibration) -> Vec<S
     out
 }
 
-/// Applies a plan, rewriting the affected bank files.
+/// Applies a plan, rewriting the calibration store.
 ///
-/// Files are rewritten one at a time and each is re-read before editing, so a plan
-/// built against a bank that has since changed on disk fails loudly rather than
-/// clobbering the newer version.
+/// One file, `analysis/calibration.yaml`, and never a bank. A bank is reviewed
+/// for what it asks; its history should be a record of wording decisions, not
+/// of every grading run. The store is re-read immediately before editing, so a
+/// plan built against a store that has since changed on disk fails loudly
+/// rather than clobbering the newer version.
 ///
 /// # Arguments
 ///
+/// * `layout` - the course layout, for where the store lives.
 /// * `plan` - the plan to apply.
 ///
 /// # Returns
 ///
-/// The bank files rewritten.
+/// The file written.
 ///
 /// # Errors
 ///
-/// Returns [`Error::Unresolved`] when an item in the plan is no longer in its bank,
-/// and [`Error::Io`] on a write failure.
-pub fn apply(plan: &Plan) -> Result<Vec<PathBuf>> {
-    // Group by file so each is read and written once.
-    let mut by_file: BTreeMap<&PathBuf, Vec<&Change>> = BTreeMap::new();
+/// Returns [`Error::Io`] on a write failure and [`Error::Yaml`] if the existing
+/// store does not parse.
+pub fn apply(layout: &Layout, plan: &Plan) -> Result<PathBuf> {
+    let path = layout.calibration_file();
+    let mut store = CalibrationFile::load(&path)?;
+
     for change in &plan.changes {
-        by_file.entry(&change.path).or_default().push(change);
+        store
+            .items
+            .insert(change.uid.clone(), change.calibration.clone());
     }
 
-    let mut written = Vec::new();
-    for (path, changes) in by_file {
-        let mut bank: BankFile = yaml::read(path)?;
-        for change in changes {
-            // The uid is `bank::item`; match on the item part.
-            let item_id = change
-                .uid
-                .split_once("::")
-                .map(|(_, id)| id)
-                .unwrap_or(&change.uid);
-            let target = bank.items.iter_mut().find(|i| i.id == item_id);
-            match target {
-                Some(item) => item.calibration = Some(change.calibration.clone()),
-                None => {
-                    return Err(Error::Unresolved {
-                        kind: "item",
-                        id: change.uid.clone(),
-                        context: Some(format!(
-                            "{} — the bank changed since the plan was built; re-run calibration",
-                            path.display()
-                        )),
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-        }
-        yaml::write(path, &bank)?;
-        written.push(path.clone());
+    if let Some(parent) = path.parent() {
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(parent).map_err(|e| Error::io(parent, e))?;
     }
-    Ok(written)
+    store.save(&path)?;
+    Ok(path)
+}
+
+/// Records what one administration measured, as a file that is never rewritten.
+///
+/// The audit trail under the pooled store: these are the numbers one exam
+/// produced, on a day, under a named model. Keeping them means the history
+/// survives losing `data/`, which is ignored by git precisely because every row
+/// of it carries a student.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `layout` - the course layout.
+/// * `administration` - the administration id, which names the file.
+/// * `analysis` - the classical analysis of that administration.
+/// * `catalog` - the loaded course, for the digests each item was measured
+///   against.
+/// * `record` - the assessment record, for the term and date.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The two files written: one row per question, one row per question and
+/// option.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::Usage`] when a record for this administration already
+/// exists, since an administration happened once.
+pub fn record_measurements(
+    layout: &Layout,
+    administration: &str,
+    analysis: &Analysis,
+    catalog: &Catalog,
+    record: Option<&AssessmentFile>,
+) -> Result<Vec<PathBuf>> {
+    let mut items = Vec::new();
+    for item in &analysis.items {
+        let Some(uid) = &item.item_ref else { continue };
+        let entry = catalog.get(uid);
+        items.push(Measurement {
+            item: uid.clone(),
+            number: item.number,
+            variant: item.variant.clone(),
+            stem_digest: entry.map(|e| e.item.stem_digest()),
+            n: item.n,
+            p_value: Some(round4(item.p_value)),
+            point_biserial: item.point_biserial.map(round4),
+            discrimination_index: item.discrimination_index.map(round4),
+            key: item.key.clone(),
+            option_stats: item
+                .options
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(id, o)| (id.clone(), o.to_option_stat()))
+                .collect(),
+            irt: None,
+            flags: item.flags.clone(),
+        });
+    }
+
+    let file = MeasurementFile {
+        schema_version: SCHEMA_VERSION.to_string(),
+        administration: MeasurementMeta {
+            id: administration.to_string(),
+            assessment: record
+                .map(|r| r.assessment.id.clone())
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| administration.to_string()),
+            term: record.and_then(|r| r.assessment.term.clone()),
+            date: record.and_then(|r| r.assessment.date),
+            forms: record
+                .map(|r| r.forms.iter().map(|f| f.id.clone()).collect())
+                .unwrap_or_default(),
+            // The cohort, taken as the largest per-item n: a student who
+            // skipped question 7 still sat the exam.
+            n_examinees: analysis.items.iter().map(|i| i.n).max().unwrap_or(0),
+            model: None,
+            generated: Some(Date::today()),
+            coursebank: Some(crate::VERSION.to_string()),
+        },
+        items,
+    };
+
+    file.write_csv(&layout.measurements())
 }
 
 /// Builds a plan for a single administration, from an in-memory analysis.
@@ -703,6 +802,16 @@ pub fn plan_from_analysis(
                 .collect(),
             irt: irt_params,
             flags: item.flags.clone(),
+            variants: variant_records(
+                &entry.item,
+                &[(admin.clone(), item.clone())],
+                previous_variants(entry),
+            ),
+            options: BTreeMap::new(),
+        };
+        let calibration = Calibration {
+            options: option_histories(&calibration.variants),
+            ..calibration
         };
 
         let previous = entry.item.calibration.as_ref();
@@ -730,6 +839,171 @@ pub fn plan_from_analysis(
     }
 }
 
+/// The variant records an item already has, to be merged with the new ones.
+fn previous_variants(entry: &crate::catalog::Entry) -> Vec<VariantCalibration> {
+    entry
+        .item
+        .calibration
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|c| c.variants.clone())
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+}
+
+/// Builds one calibration record per option set the item was administered in.
+///
+/// The records this pass computes replace the stored ones for the same variant
+/// and leave the rest alone. That is what makes a partial recalibration safe:
+/// a pass given only this term's data must not silently discard the numbers for
+/// an option set that was retired two terms ago.
+///
+/// Statistics come from the same [`pool`] used for the flat summary, so the two
+/// agree for an item whose pool is its form — the case every pre-2.0 item is in.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `item` - the bank item.
+/// * `appearances` - the administration id and analysis of each appearance.
+/// * `previous` - the records already stored.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The merged records, in variant order.
+fn variant_records(
+    item: &Item,
+    appearances: &[(String, ItemAnalysis)],
+    previous: Vec<VariantCalibration>,
+) -> Vec<VariantCalibration> {
+    // Appearances whose administration mixed two option sets under one question
+    // number carry no variant, and there is no set for them to describe.
+    let mut by_variant: BTreeMap<String, Vec<(String, ItemAnalysis)>> = BTreeMap::new();
+    for (admin, analysis) in appearances {
+        if let Some(variant) = &analysis.variant {
+            by_variant
+                .entry(variant.clone())
+                .or_default()
+                .push((admin.clone(), analysis.clone()));
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut merged: BTreeMap<String, VariantCalibration> = previous
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|v| (v.variant.clone(), v))
+        .collect();
+
+    for (variant, group) in by_variant {
+        let pooled = pool(&group);
+        // The option set is recovered from the digest's own record when the
+        // stored one has it, and from the options that were actually chosen
+        // otherwise, so a record written from data alone still says what it
+        // describes.
+        let (key, distractors) = describe(item, &variant, &group, merged.get(&variant));
+        merged.insert(
+            variant.clone(),
+            VariantCalibration {
+                variant,
+                key,
+                distractors,
+                administrations: group.iter().map(|(a, _)| a.clone()).collect(),
+                n_examinees: Some(pooled.n),
+                p_value: Some(round4(pooled.p_value)),
+                point_biserial: pooled.point_biserial.map(round4),
+                discrimination_index: pooled.discrimination_index.map(round4),
+                option_stats: pooled.option_stats.clone(),
+                irt: None,
+                flags: pooled.flags.clone(),
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    merged.into_values().collect()
+}
+
+/// Which options a variant administered.
+///
+/// Prefers what a stored record already says. Failing that, the options that
+/// appear in the statistics are the ones students saw, and the item says which
+/// of those are keyed.
+fn describe(
+    item: &Item,
+    variant: &str,
+    group: &[(String, ItemAnalysis)],
+    stored: Option<&VariantCalibration>,
+) -> (Vec<String>, Vec<String>) {
+    if let Some(stored) = stored {
+        if !stored.key.is_empty()
+            && item.variant_digest(&stored.key, &stored.distractors) == variant
+        {
+            return (stored.key.clone(), stored.distractors.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut seen: BTreeSet<String> = BTreeSet::new();
+    for (_, analysis) in group {
+        seen.extend(analysis.options.keys().cloned());
+    }
+    let keyed: BTreeSet<String> = group
+        .iter()
+        .flat_map(|(_, a)| a.key.iter().cloned())
+        .collect();
+
+    let key: Vec<String> = seen
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|o| keyed.contains(*o))
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    let distractors: Vec<String> = seen
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|o| !keyed.contains(*o))
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+    (key, distractors)
+}
+
+/// Summarizes what each option has done across every set it appeared in.
+///
+/// Deliberately coarse, because selection rates are shares of a fixed set and
+/// averaging them across different sets is not a statistic. The one claim this
+/// view supports is the one worth having: an option that draws nobody in any
+/// set it has appeared in is not doing anything, and that is the evidence for
+/// retiring it — evidence a single administration cannot provide.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `variants` - the per-variant records.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// One history per option id.
+fn option_histories(
+    variants: &[VariantCalibration],
+) -> BTreeMap<String, crate::item::OptionHistory> {
+    let mut out: BTreeMap<String, crate::item::OptionHistory> = BTreeMap::new();
+    let mut rates: BTreeMap<String, Vec<f64>> = BTreeMap::new();
+
+    for variant in variants {
+        let n = variant.n_examinees.unwrap_or(0);
+        for (option, stat) in &variant.option_stats {
+            let entry = out.entry(option.clone()).or_default();
+            entry.appearances += 1;
+            entry.n_examinees += n;
+            if let Some(rate) = stat.selection_rate {
+                rates.entry(option.clone()).or_default().push(rate);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (option, entry) in &mut out {
+        if let Some(seen) = rates.get(option) {
+            if !seen.is_empty() {
+                entry.mean_selection_rate =
+                    Some(round4(seen.iter().sum::<f64>() / seen.len() as f64));
+                entry.never_chosen = seen.iter().all(|r| *r <= f64::EPSILON);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    out
+}
+
 /// Rounds to four decimals.
 fn round4(x: f64) -> f64 {
     (x * 1e4).round() / 1e4
@@ -754,9 +1028,77 @@ mod tests {
             option_stats: BTreeMap::new(),
             irt: None,
             flags: Vec::new(),
+            variants: Vec::new(),
+            options: BTreeMap::new(),
         }
     }
 
+    fn stat(rate: f64) -> OptionStat {
+        OptionStat {
+            selection_rate: Some(rate),
+            point_biserial: None,
+            upper_group_rate: None,
+            lower_group_rate: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn variant(id: &str, n: usize, dead_rate: f64) -> VariantCalibration {
+        VariantCalibration {
+            variant: id.into(),
+            n_examinees: Some(n),
+            option_stats: [
+                ("o-key".to_string(), stat(0.8)),
+                ("o-dead".to_string(), stat(dead_rate)),
+            ]
+            .into_iter()
+            .collect(),
+            ..VariantCalibration::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_option_that_draws_nobody_is_only_visible_across_sets() {
+        let histories = option_histories(&[variant("v1", 50, 0.0), variant("v2", 46, 0.0)]);
+
+        let dead = &histories["o-dead"];
+        assert_eq!(dead.appearances, 2);
+        assert_eq!(dead.n_examinees, 96);
+        // The claim the cross-variant view exists to support, and the one a
+        // single administration cannot make.
+        assert!(dead.never_chosen);
+
+        assert!(!histories["o-key"].never_chosen);
+        assert_eq!(histories["o-key"].mean_selection_rate, Some(0.8));
+
+        // One set where it drew is enough to stop the claim.
+        let mixed = option_histories(&[variant("v1", 50, 0.0), variant("v2", 46, 0.04)]);
+        assert!(!mixed["o-dead"].never_chosen);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_pass_with_no_data_for_an_item_keeps_the_records_it_has() {
+        let item: Item = serde_yaml_ng::from_str(
+            r#"id: q-x
+status: approved
+level: 1
+stem: s
+options:
+  - { id: o-key, text: right, correct: true }
+  - { id: o-one, text: wrong }
+"#,
+        )
+        .expect("item parses");
+
+        let kept = variant_records(&item, &[], vec![variant("v-old", 96, 0.0)]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            kept.len(),
+            1,
+            "a pass given nothing must not delete history"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(kept[0].variant, "v-old");
+        assert_eq!(kept[0].n_examinees, Some(96));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn a_first_calibration_is_all_new() {
         let next = calibration(0.7, Some(0.3), 24, "abc");

src/analysis/classical.rs

@@ -134,6 +134,14 @@ pub struct ItemAnalysis {
     pub number: u32,
     /// The item's global id, when known.
     pub item_ref: Option<String>,
+    /// The option set administered, when the rows agree on one.
+    ///
+    /// Within one administration an item has one variant, because a placement's
+    /// distractors are drawn once and shared by every form — only the printed
+    /// order differs. `None` means the rows disagreed, which happens when a
+    /// course opts into drawing distractors per form; the statistics below then
+    /// describe a mixture and cannot be pooled by option set.
+    pub variant: Option<String>,
     /// How many students the item was administered to.
     pub n: usize,
     /// How many gave a non-blank response.
@@ -553,6 +561,7 @@ pub fn analyze(
             item_ref: record
                 .and_then(|r| r.placement(*number))
                 .map(|p| p.item.clone()),
+            variant: one_variant(set, *number),
             n,
             n_answered,
             blank_rate: blank as f64 / responded as f64,
@@ -906,6 +915,25 @@ fn reliability(coded: &[Vec<f64>], totals: &[f64], p_values: &[f64], rpbs: &[f64
 /// # Returns
 ///
 /// The letters that appear on full-credit responses.
+/// The single variant every row for one question names, if they agree.
+///
+/// Disagreement is not an error, it is a fact about the administration: a course
+/// that draws distractors per form has two option sets under one question
+/// number, and no pooled statistic describes both. Returning `None` is what
+/// keeps the per-variant records from claiming otherwise.
+fn one_variant(set: &ResponseSet, number: u32) -> Option<String> {
+    let mut seen: Option<&str> = None;
+    for row in set.rows.iter().filter(|r| r.item_number == number) {
+        let variant = row.variant.as_deref()?;
+        match seen {
+            None => seen = Some(variant),
+            Some(first) if first == variant => {}
+            Some(_) => return None,
+        }
+    }
+    seen.map(str::to_string)
+}
+
 fn infer_key(rows: &[&crate::responses::Response]) -> Vec<String> {
     let mut out: BTreeSet<String> = BTreeSet::new();
     for r in rows {
@@ -1001,6 +1029,7 @@ mod tests {
             item_number: number,
             item_ref: None,
             item_version: None,
+            variant: None,
             selected: if letter.is_empty() {
                 vec![]
             } else {

src/analysis/diagnostic.rs

@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ use serde::Serialize;
 use crate::assessment::AssessmentFile;
 use crate::catalog::Catalog;
 use crate::classical::Analysis;
-use crate::course::{CourseFile, ReadingRole, Reference};
+use crate::course::{CourseFile, ReadingRole};
 use crate::irt::Fit;
 use crate::item::Citation;
 use crate::responses::{Response, ResponseSet};
@@ -797,9 +797,9 @@ fn item_readings(course: &CourseFile, citations: &[Citation]) -> Vec<ItemReading
 
         let (label, title, url) = match reference {
             Some((key, reference)) => (
-                reference.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key).to_string(),
+                reference.label_or(key).to_string(),
                 Some(reference.title.clone()),
-                resolve_citation_url(citation, reference),
+                citation.href(reference),
             ),
             None => (citation.display(), None, citation.url.clone()),
         };
@@ -821,20 +821,6 @@ fn item_readings(course: &CourseFile, citations: &[Citation]) -> Vec<ItemReading
     out
 }
 
-/// A citation's own URL, else the reference's `base_url` joined with its `path`.
-fn resolve_citation_url(citation: &Citation, reference: &Reference) -> Option<String> {
-    if let Some(url) = &citation.url {
-        return Some(url.clone());
-    }
-    let path = citation.path.as_deref()?;
-    let base = reference.base_url.as_deref()?;
-    Some(match (base.ends_with('/'), path.starts_with('/')) {
-        (true, true) => format!("{base}{}", &path[1..]),
-        (false, false) => format!("{base}/{path}"),
-        _ => format!("{base}{path}"),
-    })
-}
-
 /// Ranks the lectures behind a student's missed questions.
 ///
 /// A lecture earns its place by how many distinct objectives went wrong in it,
@@ -1694,7 +1680,7 @@ pub fn cohort(
                         .map(|option| {
                             let count = responses
                                 .iter()
-                                .filter(|r| r.chosen().iter().any(|l| *l == option.id))
+                                .filter(|r| r.chosen().contains(&option.id))
                                 .count();
                             OptionRow {
                                 text: Some(option.text.clone()),

src/analysis/students.rs

@@ -1363,6 +1363,7 @@ learning_objectives:
             item_number: number,
             item_ref: None,
             item_version: None,
+            variant: None,
             selected: vec!["A".into()],
             selected_source: vec![],
             eliminated: vec![],

src/authoring/jsonschema.rs

@@ -31,6 +31,16 @@ const BASE: &str = "https://coursebank.dev/schema";
 pub enum Kind {
     /// `course.yaml`.
     Course,
+    /// `references.yaml`.
+    References,
+    /// `lectures/*.yaml`.
+    Lecture,
+    /// `objectives/*.yaml`.
+    Objective,
+    /// `analysis/calibration.yaml`.
+    Calibration,
+    /// `analysis/administrations/*.yaml`.
+    Measurements,
     /// `banks/*.yaml`.
     Bank,
     /// `assessments/*.yaml`.
@@ -38,13 +48,27 @@ pub enum Kind {
 }
 
 impl Kind {
-    /// All three kinds.
-    pub const ALL: [Kind; 3] = [Kind::Course, Kind::Bank, Kind::Assessment];
+    /// Every kind.
+    pub const ALL: [Kind; 8] = [
+        Kind::Course,
+        Kind::References,
+        Kind::Lecture,
+        Kind::Objective,
+        Kind::Bank,
+        Kind::Assessment,
+        Kind::Calibration,
+        Kind::Measurements,
+    ];
 
     /// The file name a schema is written to.
     pub fn filename(self) -> &'static str {
         match self {
             Kind::Course => "course.schema.json",
+            Kind::References => "references.schema.json",
+            Kind::Lecture => "lecture.schema.json",
+            Kind::Objective => "objective.schema.json",
+            Kind::Calibration => "calibration.schema.json",
+            Kind::Measurements => "measurements.schema.json",
             Kind::Bank => "bank.schema.json",
             Kind::Assessment => "assessment.schema.json",
         }
@@ -80,12 +104,17 @@ impl Kind {
 pub fn schema(kind: Kind) -> Value {
     match kind {
         Kind::Course => course_schema(),
+        Kind::References => references_schema(),
+        Kind::Lecture => lecture_fragment_schema(),
+        Kind::Objective => objective_fragment_schema(),
+        Kind::Calibration => calibration_file_schema(),
+        Kind::Measurements => measurements_file_schema(),
         Kind::Bank => bank_schema(),
         Kind::Assessment => assessment_schema(),
     }
 }
 
-/// Writes all three schemas to a directory.
+/// Writes every schema to a directory.
 ///
 /// # Arguments
 ///
@@ -328,6 +357,13 @@ fn lecture_schema() -> Value {
             "date": date("Date delivered."),
             "unit": { "type": "string", "description": "Unit id." },
             "slides_url": { "type": "string" },
+            "teaches": {
+                "type": "array",
+                "description": "The objectives this session develops. Each named objective gains \
+                                this lecture in its `lectures` list when the course is loaded, \
+                                so the pair is declared once, here, while planning the lecture.",
+                "items": { "type": "string" }
+            },
             "readings": {
                 "type": "array",
                 "description": "Readings assigned with this lecture, in the order you assign \
@@ -355,9 +391,12 @@ fn target_schema() -> Value {
             "order": {
                 "type": "integer",
                 "minimum": 1,
-                "description": "Position among the other targets of the same objective, low \
-                                first. Ordered within its objective rather than across the \
-                                course, so inserting one renumbers nothing outside its group."
+                "description": "Ignored since 2.0. An objective's targets are a set of question \
+                                templates, not steps in a sequence — they are not taught in \
+                                order and an exam samples from them — so a position asserts an \
+                                order that does not exist. Where one target depends on another, \
+                                say so with `prerequisites`. `coursebank migrate order` removes \
+                                this."
             },
             "level_ceiling": level(),
             "prerequisites": string_array(
@@ -386,8 +425,10 @@ fn objective_schema() -> Value {
             "order": {
                 "type": "integer",
                 "minimum": 1,
-                "description": "Position in teaching order, low first. Without it objectives \
-                                sort by id, which puts one before its own prerequisite."
+                "description": "Position in teaching order, low first. Derived since 2.0 from \
+                                the position of this objective in a lecture's `teaches` list; \
+                                an authored value still wins, and `coursebank migrate order` \
+                                removes them."
             },
             "level_ceiling": level(),
             "prerequisites": string_array(
@@ -434,7 +475,23 @@ fn reference_schema() -> Value {
             "volume": { "type": "string" },
             "issue": { "type": "string" },
             "pages": { "type": "string", "description": "Pages of the work, not of a reading." },
-            "doi": { "type": "string", "description": "Bare DOI: 10.1038/nature12373." },
+            "doi": {
+                "type": "string",
+                "pattern": "^(doi:|https?://(dx\\.)?doi\\.org/)?10\\.",
+                "description": "Bare DOI: 10.1038/nature12373. For a manuscript this is \
+                                usually the only link worth storing, since a reading list \
+                                resolves it to doi.org."
+            },
+            "arxiv": { "type": "string", "description": "Bare arXiv id: 2301.00001." },
+            "pmcid": {
+                "type": "string",
+                "description": "PubMed Central id, which hosts the full text: PMC3084216."
+            },
+            "pmid": {
+                "type": "string",
+                "pattern": "^[0-9]+$",
+                "description": "PubMed id, which hosts a record about the work: 21471563."
+            },
             "isbn": { "type": "string" },
             "url": { "type": "string", "description": "Canonical URL for the whole work." },
             "base_url": {
@@ -568,6 +625,94 @@ fn course_schema() -> Value {
     })
 }
 
+/// The schema for `references.yaml`.
+fn references_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "$id": format!("{BASE}/references.schema.json"),
+        "title": "coursebank references file",
+        "description": "The works the course cites, by citation key. One fragment of the \
+                        course file; see course.schema.json for the whole.",
+        "type": "object",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "schema_version": {
+                "type": ["string", "number"],
+                "description": format!("Format version; currently {SCHEMA_VERSION}. Declared in \
+                                        course.yaml; fragments inherit it.")
+            },
+            "references": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Works by citation key.",
+                "additionalProperties": reference_schema()
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema for one file under `lectures/`.
+fn lecture_fragment_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "$id": format!("{BASE}/lecture.schema.json"),
+        "title": "coursebank lecture file",
+        "description": "One session: its readings, and the objectives it develops. A fragment \
+                        of the course file, merged on load.",
+        "type": "object",
+        "required": ["lectures"],
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "schema_version": {
+                "type": ["string", "number"],
+                "description": "Declared in course.yaml; fragments inherit it."
+            },
+            "lectures": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Keyed by lecture id, conventionally one entry per file.",
+                "additionalProperties": lecture_schema()
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema for one file under `objectives/`.
+fn objective_fragment_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "$id": format!("{BASE}/objective.schema.json"),
+        "title": "coursebank objective file",
+        "description": "One learning objective and the learning targets it decomposes into. A \
+                        fragment of the course file, merged on load.",
+        "type": "object",
+        "required": ["learning_objectives"],
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "schema_version": {
+                "type": ["string", "number"],
+                "description": "Declared in course.yaml; fragments inherit it."
+            },
+            "learning_objectives": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Keyed by objective id, conventionally one entry per file. Its \
+                                `lectures` list is derived from each lecture's `teaches`, so \
+                                leave it out unless you prefer to declare it here.",
+                "additionalProperties": objective_schema()
+            },
+            "learning_targets": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "The targets of this file's objective, by id. A target with no \
+                                `lectures` of its own inherits its objective's.",
+                "additionalProperties": target_schema()
+            },
+            "stimuli": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Shared passages, figures, or data that several items refer to.",
+                "additionalProperties": stimulus_schema()
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
 /// One option's schema.
 ///
 /// Split out from [`item_schema`] rather than inlined, because `serde_json`'s
@@ -583,9 +728,11 @@ fn option_schema() -> Value {
         "properties": {
             "id": {
                 "type": "string",
-                "pattern": "^[A-H]$",
-                "description": "Option letter. Identity, not print position — shuffled forms \
-                                relabel on the way out."
+                "pattern": "^(o-[a-z0-9]+(-[a-z0-9]+)*|[A-H])$",
+                "description": "Option id, unique within the item: `o-fourth-line`. An \
+                                identity, not a print position — shuffled forms relabel on the \
+                                way out. A single letter A-H is the pre-2.0 form; \
+                                `coursebank migrate options` renames it."
             },
             "text": text("The option as a student reads it."),
             "correct": { "type": "boolean" },
@@ -617,7 +764,8 @@ fn option_schema() -> Value {
             },
             "selection_rate_expected": proportion(
                 "How often you expect this to be chosen. Compared against reality."
-            )
+            ),
+            "retired": retirement_schema()
         }
     })
 }
@@ -812,6 +960,21 @@ fn calibration_schema() -> Value {
                 "additionalProperties": option_stat_schema()
             },
             "irt": irt_schema(),
+            "variants": {
+                "type": "array",
+                "description": "One record per option set ever administered. A stem shown with \
+                                different distractors is a different item, so a p-value pooled \
+                                across both would average two questions.",
+                "items": variant_calibration_schema()
+            },
+            "options": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "One record per option, pooled across every set it appeared in. \
+                                Supports one claim — this option draws nobody, anywhere — which \
+                                is what retires a distractor and what one administration cannot \
+                                show.",
+                "additionalProperties": option_history_schema()
+            },
             "flags": {
                 "type": "array",
                 "items": { "type": "string", "enum": strings(&flags) }
@@ -853,6 +1016,163 @@ fn history_schema() -> Value {
     })
 }
 
+/// The schema for one option set's statistics.
+fn variant_calibration_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "type": "object",
+        "required": ["variant"],
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "variant": {
+                "type": "string",
+                "description": "Digest of the stem, the administered options, and which was keyed."
+            },
+            "key": string_array("The option ids keyed correct in this set."),
+            "distractors": string_array("The option ids offered alongside them."),
+            "administrations": string_array("The administrations pooled into these numbers."),
+            "n_examinees": { "type": "integer", "minimum": 0 },
+            "p_value": proportion("Proportion correct, for this option set only."),
+            "point_biserial": { "type": "number", "minimum": -1.0, "maximum": 1.0 },
+            "discrimination_index": { "type": "number", "minimum": -1.0, "maximum": 1.0 },
+            "option_stats": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Per-option behaviour within this set, by option id.",
+                "additionalProperties": option_stat_schema()
+            },
+            "irt": irt_schema(),
+            "flags": {
+                "type": "array",
+                "items": {
+                    "type": "string",
+                    "enum": strings(
+                        &Flag::ALL.iter().map(|f| f.as_str()).collect::<Vec<&str>>()
+                    )
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema for one option's cross-variant history.
+fn option_history_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "type": "object",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "appearances": { "type": "integer", "minimum": 0 },
+            "n_examinees": { "type": "integer", "minimum": 0 },
+            "mean_selection_rate": proportion(
+                "Mean of the within-variant rates. For reading, not for acting on: each rate is \
+                 a share of a different set."
+            ),
+            "never_chosen": {
+                "type": "boolean",
+                "description": "Never chosen, anywhere. The claim that justifies retiring it."
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema for `analysis/calibration.yaml`.
+fn calibration_file_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "$id": format!("{BASE}/calibration.schema.json"),
+        "title": "coursebank calibration store",
+        "description": "The pooled statistics, by item id. Kept out of the banks: a bank's diff \
+                        should be a change of intent, not the output of a grading run. Committed \
+                        — every number here is a cohort aggregate, and there is no field for a \
+                        student.",
+        "type": "object",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "schema_version": { "type": ["string", "number"] },
+            "items": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "description": "Keyed by item id, which since 2.0 names the item course-wide and \
+                                carries no file name, so moving a question between banks does \
+                                not orphan its statistics.",
+                "additionalProperties": calibration_schema()
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// The schema for one file under `analysis/administrations/`.
+fn measurements_file_schema() -> Value {
+    json!({
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "$id": format!("{BASE}/measurements.schema.json"),
+        "title": "coursebank administration record",
+        "description": "What one administration measured. Written once and not rewritten, like \
+                        a seal: it records a thing that happened on a day. Cohort aggregates \
+                        only — no per-section or per-student breakdown, because a small cell \
+                        crossed with anything else stops being an aggregate.",
+        "type": "object",
+        "required": ["administration"],
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+            "schema_version": { "type": ["string", "number"] },
+            "administration": {
+                "type": "object",
+                "required": ["id", "assessment", "n_examinees"],
+                "additionalProperties": false,
+                "properties": {
+                    "id": { "type": "string" },
+                    "assessment": { "type": "string" },
+                    "term": { "type": "string" },
+                    "date": date("When it was given."),
+                    "forms": string_array("The forms in play."),
+                    "n_examinees": {
+                        "type": "integer",
+                        "minimum": 0,
+                        "description": "The number to read before any of the others: a \
+                                        point-biserial on twenty-seven students is a different \
+                                        kind of claim than one on three hundred."
+                    },
+                    "model": { "type": "string" },
+                    "generated": date("When the analysis was run."),
+                    "coursebank": { "type": "string" }
+                }
+            },
+            "items": {
+                "type": "array",
+                "items": {
+                    "type": "object",
+                    "required": ["item", "number", "n"],
+                    "additionalProperties": false,
+                    "properties": {
+                        "item": { "type": "string" },
+                        "number": { "type": "integer", "minimum": 1 },
+                        "variant": { "type": "string" },
+                        "stem_digest": { "type": "string" },
+                        "n": { "type": "integer", "minimum": 0 },
+                        "p_value": proportion("Proportion correct on this administration."),
+                        "point_biserial": { "type": "number", "minimum": -1.0, "maximum": 1.0 },
+                        "discrimination_index": {
+                            "type": "number", "minimum": -1.0, "maximum": 1.0
+                        },
+                        "option_stats": {
+                            "type": "object",
+                            "additionalProperties": option_stat_schema()
+                        },
+                        "irt": irt_schema(),
+                        "flags": {
+                            "type": "array",
+                            "items": {
+                                "type": "string",
+                                "enum": strings(
+                                    &Flag::ALL.iter().map(|f| f.as_str()).collect::<Vec<&str>>()
+                                )
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    })
+}
+
 /// The schema for a retirement record.
 fn retirement_schema() -> Value {
     json!({
@@ -875,9 +1195,12 @@ fn item_identity_properties() -> Value {
     json!({
         "id": {
             "type": "string",
-            "pattern": "^q-[a-z0-9]+(-[a-z0-9]+)*-[0-9]{3}$",
-            "description": "Item id, e.g. q-glycolysis-014. Stable forever: assessment records \
-                            and stored responses refer to it."
+            "pattern": "^q-[a-z0-9]+(-[a-z0-9]+)*$",
+            "description": "Item id, e.g. q-glycolysis-rate-limiting-step. Stable forever: \
+                            assessment records and stored responses refer to it, so renaming one \
+                            is a migration rather than an edit. A trailing counter is no longer \
+                            expected — it recorded when the item was written, which git knows — \
+                            but an id that still has one stays valid."
         },
         "version": {
             "type": "integer",
@@ -944,7 +1267,6 @@ fn item_content_properties() -> Value {
         "prerequisites": string_array("Objective ids a student needs before this item."),
         "assets": { "type": "array", "items": asset_schema() },
         "design": design_schema(),
-        "calibration": calibration_schema(),
         "review": review_schema(),
         "history": {
             "type": "array",
@@ -1157,7 +1479,21 @@ fn placement_schema() -> Value {
             },
             "points": { "type": "number", "minimum": 0.0 },
             "bonus": { "type": "boolean" },
-            "key": string_array("Keyed option letters as administered."),
+            "key": string_array(
+                "The option ids keyed correct for this administration. One for a \
+                 single_best_answer, chosen from the item's pool of defensible keys."
+            ),
+            "distractors": string_array(
+                "The option ids offered alongside the key. Resolved when the assessment is \
+                 assembled and written out explicitly, so a later bank edit cannot change the \
+                 paper. Empty means the whole pool."
+            ),
+            "variant": {
+                "type": "string",
+                "description": "Digest of the item as this administration showed it: stem, \
+                                administered options, and which was keyed. The key statistics \
+                                pool on."
+            },
             "level": level(),
             "learning_targets": string_array("Targets as administered."),
             "credit_overrides": {
@@ -1260,7 +1596,8 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(props["options"]["maxItems"], 8);
         assert_eq!(
             props["options"]["items"]["properties"]["id"]["pattern"],
-            "^[A-H]$"
+            // Either form: the 2.0 name, or the letter it replaces.
+            "^(o-[a-z0-9]+(-[a-z0-9]+)*|[A-H])$"
         );
     }
 
@@ -1283,7 +1620,7 @@ mod tests {
         let dir = std::env::temp_dir().join(format!("cb-schema-{}", std::process::id()));
         std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
         let written = write_all(&dir).unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(written.len(), 3);
+        assert_eq!(written.len(), Kind::ALL.len());
         for path in &written {
             assert!(path.exists());
             let text = std::fs::read_to_string(path).unwrap();

src/authoring/lint.rs

@@ -88,6 +88,16 @@ pub enum Rule {
     /// An expectation of low discrimination on a higher-level item.
     ContradictoryDesign,
 
+    // --- the option pool ---
+    /// Fewer usable distractors than a form shows.
+    ThinOptionPool,
+    /// An option that has never been administered and has not been retired.
+    UnusedOption,
+    /// An option retired without saying what it did.
+    UnjustifiedRetirement,
+    /// A distractor that has never been chosen, in any set it appeared in.
+    NonfunctioningDistractor,
+
     // --- evidence ---
     /// Statistics describe an older version of the item.
     StaleCalibration,
@@ -104,7 +114,7 @@ impl Rule {
     ///
     /// Used by `--list-rules`, and by the test that keeps this list in step with
     /// the enum.
-    pub const ALL: [Rule; 26] = [
+    pub const ALL: [Rule; 30] = [
         Rule::KeyIsLongest,
         Rule::UnevenOptionLength,
         Rule::WordRepeatCue,
@@ -127,6 +137,10 @@ impl Rule {
         Rule::WeakFormatForLevel,
         Rule::ScoredBonusLevel,
         Rule::ContradictoryDesign,
+        Rule::ThinOptionPool,
+        Rule::UnusedOption,
+        Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement,
+        Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor,
         Rule::StaleCalibration,
         Rule::DifficultyMissed,
         Rule::DiscriminationMissed,
@@ -152,6 +166,9 @@ impl Rule {
             // Statistics attached to text that has since changed are actively
             // misleading, which is worse than absent.
             R::StaleCalibration => Severity::High,
+            // An item that cannot fill a form is an item `assemble` will put on
+            // a paper short an option.
+            R::ThinOptionPool => Severity::High,
             // An unanswerable question for a screen-reader user.
             R::AssetWithoutAltText => Severity::High,
 
@@ -178,6 +195,13 @@ impl Rule {
             | R::NoStudentFeedback
             | R::DifficultyMissed
             | R::DiscriminationMissed => Severity::Low,
+
+            // A distractor that draws nobody across several administrations is
+            // evidence to act on, not a style note.
+            R::NonfunctioningDistractor => Severity::Medium,
+            // Both are tidiness: the item still works, but its pool is
+            // carrying something nobody has accounted for.
+            R::UnusedOption | R::UnjustifiedRetirement => Severity::Low,
         }
     }
 
@@ -206,6 +230,10 @@ impl Rule {
             Rule::WeakFormatForLevel => "complete-format-level",
             Rule::ScoredBonusLevel => "complete-bonus-policy",
             Rule::ContradictoryDesign => "complete-design-conflict",
+            Rule::ThinOptionPool => "pool-thin",
+            Rule::UnusedOption => "pool-unused",
+            Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement => "pool-unjustified-retirement",
+            Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor => "evidence-nonfunctioning",
             Rule::StaleCalibration => "evidence-stale",
             Rule::DifficultyMissed => "evidence-difficulty",
             Rule::DiscriminationMissed => "evidence-discrimination",
@@ -238,9 +266,11 @@ impl Rule {
             | Rule::WeakFormatForLevel
             | Rule::ScoredBonusLevel
             | Rule::ContradictoryDesign => "completeness",
+            Rule::ThinOptionPool | Rule::UnusedOption | Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement => "pool",
             Rule::StaleCalibration
             | Rule::DifficultyMissed
             | Rule::DiscriminationMissed
+            | Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor
             | Rule::DuplicateStem => "evidence",
         }
     }
@@ -270,6 +300,10 @@ impl Rule {
             Rule::WeakFormatForLevel,
             Rule::ScoredBonusLevel,
             Rule::ContradictoryDesign,
+            Rule::ThinOptionPool,
+            Rule::UnusedOption,
+            Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement,
+            Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor,
             Rule::StaleCalibration,
             Rule::DifficultyMissed,
             Rule::DiscriminationMissed,
@@ -302,6 +336,12 @@ impl Rule {
             Rule::WeakFormatForLevel => "true/false at an analytic level",
             Rule::ScoredBonusLevel => "a level the policy reserves for bonus is scored",
             Rule::ContradictoryDesign => "low expected discrimination on a higher-level item",
+            Rule::ThinOptionPool => "fewer usable distractors than a form shows",
+            Rule::UnusedOption => "an option has never been administered and is not retired",
+            Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement => "an option was retired without saying what it did",
+            Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor => {
+                "a distractor has never been chosen in any set it appeared in"
+            }
             Rule::StaleCalibration => "statistics describe an older version of the item",
             Rule::DifficultyMissed => "observed difficulty was far from predicted",
             Rule::DiscriminationMissed => "observed discrimination contradicted the prediction",
@@ -749,6 +789,87 @@ pub fn lint_item(entry: &Entry, course: &CourseFile, t: &Thresholds) -> Vec<Find
         }
     }
 
+    // --- the option pool
+    // These only make sense once options are a pool, and the pool is where an
+    // item's spare parts sit. A bank that never draws from it will not trip any
+    // of them.
+    if it.format.has_options() {
+        let (keys, distractors) = it.pool();
+        let wanted = course.policy.options_per_item.saturating_sub(1);
+        if distractors.len() < wanted {
+            push(
+                Rule::ThinOptionPool,
+                Severity::High,
+                format!(
+                    "has {} usable distractor(s) but a form shows {}, so `assemble` will put \
+                     this on a paper an option short",
+                    distractors.len(),
+                    course.policy.options_per_item
+                ),
+            );
+        }
+
+        for option in &it.options {
+            match &option.retired {
+                Some(retirement) => {
+                    if retirement.reason.trim().len() < 12 {
+                        push(
+                            Rule::UnjustifiedRetirement,
+                            Severity::Low,
+                            format!(
+                                "option `{}` is retired with no real reason. The reason is the \
+                                 finding — what it drew, or failed to draw — and it is the only \
+                                 part of a retirement worth anything in two years",
+                                option.id
+                            ),
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+                None => {
+                    // An option nobody has been shown is a draft, and a draft
+                    // sitting in an approved item's pool will eventually be
+                    // drawn onto a paper without ever having been reviewed
+                    // against data.
+                    if let Some(history) = it
+                        .calibration
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .filter(|c| !c.options.is_empty())
+                        .and_then(|c| c.options.get(&option.id))
+                    {
+                        if history.never_chosen && history.appearances > 1 {
+                            push(
+                                Rule::NonfunctioningDistractor,
+                                Severity::Medium,
+                                format!(
+                                    "option `{}` has appeared in {} option set(s) across {} \
+                                     examinees and has never been chosen. One administration \
+                                     would not show this; several do.",
+                                    option.id, history.appearances, history.n_examinees
+                                ),
+                            );
+                        }
+                    } else if it
+                        .calibration
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .is_some_and(|c| !c.options.is_empty())
+                    {
+                        push(
+                            Rule::UnusedOption,
+                            Severity::Low,
+                            format!(
+                                "option `{}` has never been administered. Either it is waiting \
+                                 its turn, or it was drafted and forgotten — retire it and say \
+                                 which.",
+                                option.id
+                            ),
+                        );
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let _ = keys;
+    }
+
     // --- evidence
     if !it.calibration_is_current() {
         push(
@@ -1196,7 +1317,7 @@ mod tests {
     fn entry(yaml: &str) -> Entry {
         let item: Item = serde_yaml_ng::from_str(yaml).expect("item parses");
         Entry {
-            uid: format!("b::{}", item.id),
+            uid: item.id.clone(),
             bank: "b".into(),
             path: PathBuf::from("b.yaml"),
             index: 0,
@@ -1215,6 +1336,45 @@ mod tests {
         c
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn a_pool_too_thin_to_fill_a_form_is_flagged() {
+        let c = codes(
+            r#"
+id: q-a-001
+status: draft
+level: 2
+stem: Which mechanism best explains the sigmoidal binding curve?
+options:
+  - { id: o-shift, text: Ligand binding shifts the tetramer to a higher-affinity state, correct: true }
+  - { id: o-fixed, text: Each subunit binds with the same fixed affinity throughout }
+"#,
+        );
+        // Policy shows four options and the pool can supply two, so `assemble`
+        // would put this on a paper two short.
+        assert!(c.contains(&"pool-thin"), "{c:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_retirement_with_no_finding_is_flagged() {
+        let c = codes(
+            r#"
+id: q-a-001
+status: draft
+level: 2
+stem: Which mechanism best explains the sigmoidal binding curve?
+options:
+  - { id: o-shift, text: Ligand binding shifts the tetramer to a higher-affinity state, correct: true }
+  - { id: o-fixed, text: Each subunit binds with the same fixed affinity throughout }
+  - { id: o-consumed, text: "Ligand is consumed as it binds, depleting the available pool" }
+  - { id: o-oxidation, text: The heme iron changes oxidation state upon binding }
+  - { id: o-cooperative, text: Subunits bind independently of one another, retired: { 'on': 2026-09-20, reason: bad } }
+"#,
+        );
+        assert!(c.contains(&"pool-unjustified-retirement"), "{c:?}");
+        // Four live distractors is enough for a four-option form.
+        assert!(!c.contains(&"pool-thin"), "{c:?}");
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn clean_item_passes() {
         let c = codes(

src/authoring/select.rs

@@ -33,8 +33,9 @@ use crate::course::{CourseFile, SCHEMA_VERSION};
 use crate::date::Date;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::history::History;
+use crate::item::{Choice, Item};
 use crate::rng::Rng;
-use crate::taxonomy::Level;
+use crate::taxonomy::{Format, Level};
 
 /// The result of a draw.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -466,14 +467,23 @@ pub fn to_record(
             .chain(selection.bonus.iter().map(|u| (u, true))),
     ) {
         let e = catalog.require(uid)?;
+        let (key, distractors) = draw_options(
+            &e.item,
+            catalog.course.policy.options_per_item,
+            blueprint.seed.unwrap_or(0),
+            uid,
+        );
         items.push(Placement {
             number,
             item: uid.clone(),
-            version: Some(e.item.version),
+            version: None,
+            stem_digest: Some(e.item.stem_digest()),
+            variant: Some(e.item.variant_digest(&key, &distractors)),
             fingerprint: Some(e.item.fingerprint()),
             points: Some(e.item.points(default_points)),
             bonus: is_bonus || e.item.bonus,
-            key: e.item.key_letters(),
+            distractors,
+            key,
             level: Some(e.item.level),
             learning_targets: e.item.learning_targets.clone(),
             credit_overrides: BTreeMap::new(),
@@ -570,6 +580,85 @@ pub fn layout(record: &AssessmentFile, form: &Form) -> Vec<Placement> {
     scored.into_iter().chain(bonus).collect()
 }
 
+/// Draws the key and the distractors one placement administers.
+///
+/// Resolved here, at assembly, and written into the record as explicit lists.
+/// Nothing downstream samples: an export that drew its own options would print
+/// a different paper every time the bank was touched.
+///
+/// The draw is seeded on the blueprint and the item, so re-running `assemble`
+/// with the same seed produces the same paper, and two items in one assessment
+/// draw independently.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `item` - the item, whose options are a pool.
+/// * `per_item` - how many options a form shows, from course policy.
+/// * `seed` - the blueprint seed.
+/// * `uid` - the item id, salting the draw.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The keyed ids and the distractor ids, each sorted, naming options of `item`.
+/// Both empty for an item with no options, which is an open response.
+pub fn draw_options(
+    item: &Item,
+    per_item: usize,
+    seed: u64,
+    uid: &str,
+) -> (Vec<String>, Vec<String>) {
+    let (keys, distractors) = item.pool();
+    if keys.is_empty() && distractors.is_empty() {
+        return (Vec::new(), Vec::new());
+    }
+
+    // Multiple response keys every correct option; anything else keys one, and
+    // when the pool offers several defensible keys the draw picks one so that
+    // the record says which.
+    let wanted_keys = match item.format {
+        Format::MultipleResponse => keys.len(),
+        _ => 1.min(keys.len()),
+    };
+    let mut rng = Rng::from_label(&format!("{seed}/{uid}/options"));
+
+    let mut key_ids = pick(&keys, wanted_keys, &mut rng);
+    key_ids.sort();
+
+    // A pool with fewer usable distractors than the policy asks for is a
+    // finding, not a failure: the form comes out short and `lint` says so,
+    // rather than `assemble` refusing to build the assessment at all.
+    let wanted = per_item.saturating_sub(key_ids.len());
+    let mut distractor_ids = pick(&distractors, wanted.min(distractors.len()), &mut rng);
+    distractor_ids.sort();
+
+    (key_ids, distractor_ids)
+}
+
+/// Takes `n` options, preferring the ones that were designed rather than merely
+/// written.
+///
+/// A distractor carrying a misconception and an error type is one you thought
+/// about; one carrying neither is filler. When the pool is larger than the form,
+/// the thought-about ones go on the paper. The shuffle comes first so that
+/// options of equal standing are drawn by seed rather than by declaration
+/// order.
+fn pick(options: &[&Choice], n: usize, rng: &mut Rng) -> Vec<String> {
+    if n >= options.len() {
+        return options.iter().map(|o| o.id.clone()).collect();
+    }
+    let mut order: Vec<usize> = (0..options.len()).collect();
+    rng.shuffle(&mut order);
+    order.sort_by_key(|&i| {
+        let o = options[i];
+        u8::from(o.misconception.is_none()) + u8::from(o.error_type.is_none())
+    });
+    order
+        .into_iter()
+        .take(n)
+        .map(|i| options[i].id.clone())
+        .collect()
+}
+
 /// The option order for one item on one form.
 ///
 /// # Arguments
@@ -692,6 +781,68 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(form_label(27), "AB");
     }
 
+    /// An item whose options are given as YAML, so the test needs no literal.
+    fn pool_item(options: &str) -> Item {
+        let src = format!(
+            r#"id: q-x
+status: approved
+level: 1
+cognitive_process: recall
+stem: Which line holds the quality scores?
+learning_targets: [t-x]
+sources: [{{ lecture: L1 }}]
+options:
+{options}"#
+        );
+        serde_yaml_ng::from_str(&src).expect("item parses")
+    }
+
+    const DESIGNED: &str = r#"  - { id: o-key, text: right, correct: true }
+  - { id: o-designed-a, text: a, misconception: mistakes the separator, error_type: recall_confusion }
+  - { id: o-designed-b, text: b, misconception: confuses the two, error_type: recall_confusion }
+  - { id: o-filler-a, text: c }
+  - { id: o-filler-b, text: d }
+"#;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_draw_prefers_designed_distractors_and_is_reproducible() {
+        let item = pool_item(DESIGNED);
+
+        let (key, distractors) = draw_options(&item, 3, 1103, "q-x");
+        assert_eq!(key, vec!["o-key".to_string()]);
+        assert_eq!(distractors.len(), 2);
+        // Thought-about distractors go on the paper before filler does.
+        assert!(
+            distractors.iter().all(|d| d.starts_with("o-designed")),
+            "{distractors:?}"
+        );
+
+        // Same seed, same paper.
+        assert_eq!(draw_options(&item, 3, 1103, "q-x"), (key, distractors));
+
+        // A retired option is not drawn, and the form comes out of the rest.
+        let retired = pool_item(&DESIGNED.replace(
+            "{ id: o-designed-a, text: a,",
+            "{ id: o-designed-a, text: a, retired: { 'on': 2026-09-20, reason: nonfunctioning },",
+        ));
+        let (_, after) = draw_options(&retired, 3, 1103, "q-x");
+        assert!(!after.iter().any(|d| d == "o-designed-a"), "{after:?}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_thin_pool_comes_out_short_rather_than_refusing_to_build() {
+        let item = pool_item(
+            "  - { id: o-key, text: right, correct: true }\n  - { id: o-one, text: wrong }\n",
+        );
+        let (key, distractors) = draw_options(&item, 4, 7, "q-y");
+        assert_eq!(key.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(
+            distractors.len(),
+            1,
+            "one usable distractor, so one is drawn"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn option_order_is_a_reproducible_permutation() {
         let form = Form {

src/cli.rs

@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ use coursebank::assessment::{Kind as AssessmentKind, Platform};
 use coursebank::catalog::Severity;
 use coursebank::item::IrtModel;
 use coursebank::lecture::Style as PageStyle;
+use coursebank::references;
 use coursebank::store;
 
 /// Manage course item banks, assessments, and the analysis that comes back.
@@ -48,6 +49,15 @@ pub(crate) struct Cli {
 pub(crate) enum Command {
     /// Create a new course directory.
     Init(InitArgs),
+    /// Inspect the course file.
+    #[command(subcommand)]
+    Course(CourseCommand),
+    /// One-time conversions from an older layout.
+    #[command(subcommand)]
+    Migrate(MigrateCommand),
+    /// Work with the bibliography.
+    #[command(subcommand)]
+    References(ReferencesCommand),
     /// Write JSON Schemas so your editor can validate the YAML as you type.
     Schema,
     /// Check every file for problems that must be fixed.
@@ -93,6 +103,158 @@ pub(crate) enum Command {
     Data,
 }
 
+/// `course`: the course file itself, which may be one file or many.
+#[derive(Debug, Subcommand)]
+pub(crate) enum CourseCommand {
+    /// List the files the course is assembled from.
+    Files,
+    /// Print the merged course, or write it to a file.
+    ///
+    /// Nothing reads what this writes. It exists so you can see what the
+    /// fragments add up to, and diff two revisions of a course that no longer
+    /// lives in one file.
+    Build {
+        /// Output path; prints to stdout when omitted.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        out: Option<PathBuf>,
+    },
+    /// Say which file defines an id.
+    Where {
+        /// A unit, lecture, objective, target, reference, or stimulus id.
+        id: String,
+    },
+}
+
+/// `migrate`: the one-time conversions, grouped so they are findable together.
+#[derive(Debug, Subcommand)]
+pub(crate) enum MigrateCommand {
+    /// Split one course.yaml into references.yaml, lectures/, and objectives/.
+    ///
+    /// The original is kept as course.yaml.bak, and the result is reassembled
+    /// and compared against it before the command reports success.
+    Split {
+        /// Show what would be written, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Drop the trailing counter from every item id.
+    ///
+    /// A rename, not a normalization: `q-x-001` and `q-x` are unrelated
+    /// strings, so banks, records, seals, and the response store are rewritten
+    /// in one pass or not at all. Two ids that would collide abort it.
+    Counters {
+        /// Show the renames, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Replace the `order:` integers with ordered declarations.
+    ///
+    /// Objective order comes from each lecture's `teaches` list, target order
+    /// from a `targets:` list this writes onto each objective. Run
+    /// `migrate split` first — without `teaches`, objective order has no
+    /// source.
+    Order {
+        /// Show what would change, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Turn citations written into `note:` fields into real fields.
+    ///
+    /// Journal, volume, pages, and DOI parsed out of the prose, with whatever
+    /// the note still says left in it. A field the entry already declares is
+    /// never overwritten; a disagreement is reported instead.
+    References {
+        /// Show what would change, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Fill in the stored `variant` column from the assessment records.
+    ///
+    /// Nothing in the tool needs it — a variant is derived from the placement
+    /// when a row has none. It is for pandas, DuckDB, and R, which see only
+    /// what is in the column and will otherwise average two option sets of one
+    /// stem into an item that never existed.
+    Variants {
+        /// Show what would change, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Drop `version:` and `history:`, which 2.0 ignores.
+    ///
+    /// A stem's text is its identity: reword it and it is a new item with a new
+    /// id and `supersedes:` pointing back. `validate` enforces that against
+    /// every seal, so what a version number used to hint at is now checked.
+    Stems {
+        /// Show what would change, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Rewrite option letters as names derived from the option text.
+    ///
+    /// A letter is a position, and a position in a field that pooled
+    /// statistics and `credit_overrides` join on is a bug waiting for someone
+    /// to reorder a YAML block. Run with --dry-run first: the names land in
+    /// the response store, so they are as permanent as an item id.
+    Options {
+        /// Show the derived names, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+    /// Rewrite pre-2.0 `bank::item` ids as the item ids they name.
+    ///
+    /// Touches assessment records, seals, and the response store. Everything
+    /// keeps working unmigrated — an old id still resolves — but a store
+    /// holding both forms groups one question into two for anything reading the
+    /// Parquet without this tool.
+    Ids {
+        /// Show what would change, and write nothing.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        dry_run: bool,
+    },
+}
+
+/// `references`: the bibliography, and the formats other tools read it in.
+#[derive(Debug, Subcommand)]
+pub(crate) enum ReferencesCommand {
+    /// List every work, with the link a reading list would use.
+    ///
+    /// The column that matters is the last one: a work with no link is one a
+    /// student cannot reach from a report, which for a manuscript usually means
+    /// its DOI is missing.
+    List,
+    /// Write the bibliography in a citation format.
+    Export {
+        /// Which format to write.
+        #[arg(long, value_enum, default_value = "hayagriva")]
+        format: ReferenceFormat,
+        /// Output path; prints to stdout when omitted.
+        #[arg(long)]
+        out: Option<PathBuf>,
+    },
+}
+
+/// The citation formats `references export` can write.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, ValueEnum)]
+pub(crate) enum ReferenceFormat {
+    /// Hayagriva YAML, which Typst reads natively.
+    Hayagriva,
+    /// CSL-JSON, for Zotero, Pandoc, and CSL processors.
+    CslJson,
+    /// BibTeX.
+    Bibtex,
+}
+
+impl ReferenceFormat {
+    /// The library-side format.
+    pub(crate) fn as_format(self) -> references::Format {
+        match self {
+            ReferenceFormat::Hayagriva => references::Format::Hayagriva,
+            ReferenceFormat::CslJson => references::Format::CslJson,
+            ReferenceFormat::Bibtex => references::Format::Bibtex,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[derive(Debug, Args)]
 pub(crate) struct InitArgs {
     /// Course code, e.g. "BIOSC 1540".
@@ -593,6 +755,14 @@ pub(crate) enum AnalyzeCommand {
         /// Pool every stored administration of this assessment.
         #[arg(long)]
         pooled: bool,
+        /// Also write the administration record under analysis/.
+        ///
+        /// Two CSVs, one row per question and one per question-and-option,
+        /// written once and never rewritten. Cohort aggregates only, so unlike
+        /// the response data they are meant to be committed — which is what
+        /// keeps the history when `data/` rotates.
+        #[arg(long = "record")]
+        record: bool,
     },
     /// Fit an IRT model.
     Irt {

src/commands.rs

@@ -8,8 +8,8 @@
 //! calls the matching handler. The handlers themselves live in submodules that
 //! follow the workflow described in the crate documentation:
 //!
-//! - [`project`] — set up and check a course: `init`, `schema`, `validate`,
-//!   `lint`, `catalog`.
+//! - [`project`] — set up and check a course: `init`, `course`, `schema`,
+//!   `validate`, `lint`, `catalog`.
 //! - [`lectures`] — render a lecture's reading list and check what backs each
 //!   objective: `lecture`.
 //! - [`banks`] — manage items and build assessments: `bank`, `assessment`,
@@ -55,6 +55,9 @@ pub(crate) enum Outcome {
 pub(crate) fn run(cli: &Cli) -> Result<Outcome> {
     match &cli.command {
         Command::Init(args) => project::init(cli, args),
+        Command::Course(sub) => project::course(cli, sub),
+        Command::References(sub) => project::references(cli, sub),
+        Command::Migrate(sub) => project::migrate(cli, sub),
         Command::Schema => project::schema(cli),
         Command::Validate => project::validate(cli),
         Command::Lint(args) => project::lint(cli, args),

src/commands/analysis.rs

@@ -294,12 +294,46 @@ pub(crate) fn analyze(cli: &Cli, sub: &AnalyzeCommand) -> Result<Outcome> {
     let store = Store::open(catalog.layout.data())?;
 
     match sub {
-        AnalyzeCommand::Items { id, pooled } => {
+        AnalyzeCommand::Items {
+            id,
+            pooled,
+            record: write_record,
+        } => {
             let record = load_record(&catalog, id)?;
             let set = responses_for(&store, &catalog, &record, *pooled)?;
             let analysis =
                 classical::analyze(&set, &Thresholds::default(), Some(&record), Some(&catalog));
 
+            if *write_record {
+                // The full administration id, not the assessment id: `e1` is
+                // given again next year, and a record named after it would
+                // collide with this cohort's — which `write_csv` would report
+                // as "already recorded" when it is a different exam entirely.
+                let administration = coursebank::responses::administration_id(
+                    &catalog.course.course.code,
+                    record
+                        .assessment
+                        .term
+                        .as_deref()
+                        .unwrap_or(&catalog.course.course.term),
+                    &record.assessment.id,
+                );
+                let written = calibrate::record_measurements(
+                    &catalog.layout,
+                    &administration,
+                    &analysis,
+                    &catalog,
+                    Some(&record),
+                )?;
+                for path in &written {
+                    println!("wrote {}", path.display());
+                }
+                println!(
+                    "\nCohort aggregates only, so these are committed. Review with\n  git diff \
+                     analysis/\n"
+                );
+            }
+
             for w in &analysis.warnings {
                 println!("! {w}\n");
             }
@@ -463,17 +497,20 @@ pub(crate) fn calibrate(cli: &Cli, args: &CalibrateArgs) -> Result<Outcome> {
     }
     if !args.apply {
         println!(
-            "Nothing written. Re-run with --apply to write these {} change(s) into the bank \
-             files, then review the git diff.",
+            "Nothing written. Re-run with --apply to write these {} change(s) into \
+             analysis/calibration.yaml, then review the git diff.",
             plan.changes.len()
         );
         return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
     }
 
-    for path in calibrate::apply(&plan)? {
-        println!("updated {}", path.display());
-    }
-    println!("\nReview the diff before committing: git diff banks/");
+    let path = calibrate::apply(&catalog.layout, &plan)?;
+    println!("updated {}", path.display());
+    println!(
+        "\nReview the diff before committing: git diff analysis/\n\nThe banks are untouched. \
+         Statistics are cohort aggregates with no student in\n  them, which is why analysis/ is \
+         committed and data/ is not."
+    );
     Ok(Outcome::Ok)
 }
 

src/commands/project.rs

@@ -5,9 +5,10 @@
 //! Setting up a course and checking it stays well-formed.
 //!
 //! These are the commands you reach for before and around authoring: create the
-//! directory (`init`), write editor schemas (`schema`), and run the two kinds of
-//! checking — [`validate`] for problems that must be fixed and [`lint`] for
-//! item-writing guidance. [`catalog`] summarizes the pool that results.
+//! directory (`init`), see and split the course file (`course`), export the
+//! bibliography (`references`), write editor schemas (`schema`), and run the two
+//! kinds of checking — [`validate`] for problems that must be fixed and [`lint`]
+//! for item-writing guidance. [`catalog`] summarizes the pool that results.
 
 use std::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet};
 use std::fs;
@@ -15,24 +16,34 @@ use std::path::Path;
 
 use coursebank::assessment::AssessmentFile;
 use coursebank::bank::BankFile;
+use coursebank::course::fragment::{self, Section};
 use coursebank::course::{COURSE_FILE, CourseFile};
 use coursebank::error::{Error, Result};
 use coursebank::jsonschema;
 use coursebank::layout::Layout;
 use coursebank::lint::{self, Rule};
+use coursebank::migrate;
+use coursebank::references;
 use coursebank::taxonomy::{Level, Tier};
 use coursebank::yaml;
 
-use crate::cli::{CatalogArgs, Cli, InitArgs, LintArgs};
+use crate::cli::{
+    CatalogArgs, Cli, CourseCommand, InitArgs, LintArgs, MigrateCommand, ReferencesCommand,
+};
 use crate::commands::Outcome;
 use crate::helpers::{load, truncate};
 
 /// The `.gitignore` written by `init`.
 pub(crate) const GITIGNORE: &str = "\
-# Generated output: exports, rendered exams, reports.
+# Generated output: exports, rendered exams, reports. A student report carries
+# names, so it belongs here rather than in the repository.
 build/
 reports/
 
+# Response data: every row carries a student. The statistics derived from it are
+# cohort aggregates and live in analysis/, which is committed on purpose.
+data/
+
 # Typst and PDF artifacts.
 *.pdf
 
@@ -77,13 +88,430 @@ pub(crate) fn init(cli: &Cli, args: &InitArgs) -> Result<Outcome> {
 
     write_gitignore(&cli.course.join(".gitignore"))?;
     println!(
-        "\nNext: edit {} to add your learning objectives, their targets, and your\n  lectures, then\n  \
-         coursebank bank new unit-1 --title \"Unit 1\"\n  coursebank validate",
-        COURSE_FILE
+        "\nNext: edit {COURSE_FILE} to add your learning objectives, their targets, and\n  \
+         your lectures, then\n  coursebank bank new unit-1 --title \"Unit 1\"\n  \
+         coursebank validate\n\nOnce {COURSE_FILE} is more than you want to scroll, \
+         `coursebank migrate split`\n  moves each lecture and objective into its own file under \
+         lectures/ and\n  objectives/, and every command goes on reading the course as one."
     );
     Ok(Outcome::Ok)
 }
 
+/// `course`: inspect the course file, or split it into fragments.
+pub(crate) fn course(cli: &Cli, sub: &CourseCommand) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    match sub {
+        CourseCommand::Files => course_files(cli),
+        CourseCommand::Build { out } => course_build(cli, out.as_deref()),
+        CourseCommand::Where { id } => course_where(cli, id),
+    }
+}
+
+/// `migrate`: the one-time layout conversions.
+pub(crate) fn migrate(cli: &Cli, sub: &MigrateCommand) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    match sub {
+        MigrateCommand::Split { dry_run } => course_split(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Ids { dry_run } => migrate_ids(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Options { dry_run } => migrate_options(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Stems { dry_run } => migrate_stems(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Variants { dry_run } => migrate_variants(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::References { dry_run } => migrate_references(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Order { dry_run } => migrate_order(cli, *dry_run),
+        MigrateCommand::Counters { dry_run } => migrate_counters(cli, *dry_run),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Drops the trailing counter from every item id.
+fn migrate_counters(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let (rename, touched) = migrate::counters(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+    if rename.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to do: no item id ends in a counter");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+
+    for (old, new) in &rename {
+        println!("  {old}  ->  {new}");
+    }
+    println!();
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} reference(s)", path.display());
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+
+    let sealed = touched
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|(p, _)| p.starts_with("seals"))
+        .count();
+    println!(
+        "\nrenamed {} item(s) across {} file(s)",
+        rename.len(),
+        touched.len()
+    );
+    if sealed > 0 {
+        println!(
+            "\n{sealed} seal(s) were rewritten. The ids are inside the digest, so each one was \
+             recomputed\n  and the previous digest recorded under `superseded_digests`. A seal \
+             that has been\n  rewritten says so rather than looking untouched."
+        );
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n  coursebank seal verify\n  coursebank analyze items \
+         --all   # the join key moved; check the data still lands"
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Replaces the order integers with ordered declarations.
+fn migrate_order(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let touched = migrate::order(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+    if touched.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to do: no `order:` left to derive");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    let total: usize = touched.iter().map(|(_, n)| n).sum();
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} order(s) dropped", path.display());
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nrewrote {} file(s), {total} integer(s) gone\n\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n  \
+         coursebank lecture objectives L1.2   # check the order still reads right",
+        touched.len()
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Takes the citations out of the notes and puts them in fields.
+fn migrate_references(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let (touched, notes) = migrate::references(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} note(s) taken apart", path.display());
+    }
+    for note in &notes {
+        println!("  note: {note}");
+    }
+    if touched.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to do: no note is carrying a citation");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nrewrote {} file(s)\n\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n  coursebank references list\n\n\
+         An issue number is never inferred, not even from a DOI that encodes one, so add those \
+         by hand.",
+        touched.len()
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Fills in the stored variant column.
+fn migrate_variants(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let touched = migrate::store_variants(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+    if touched.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to fill in: every stored row already names its variant");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} row(s)", path.display());
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    println!("\nrewrote {} data file(s)", touched.len());
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Drops the version fields 2.0 ignores.
+fn migrate_stems(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let touched = migrate::stems(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+    if touched.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to migrate: no `version:` or `history:` left to drop");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} line(s) dropped", path.display());
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nrewrote {} file(s)\n\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n\nFrom here, rewording a stem \
+         is an error rather than a version bump: give the new\n  wording a new id and \
+         `supersedes:` the old one.",
+        touched.len()
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Rewrites option letters as names, showing every name before writing.
+fn migrate_options(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let (map, problems) = migrate::options_plan(&cli.course)?;
+
+    for (item, options) in &map {
+        println!("{item}");
+        for (letter, name) in options {
+            println!("  {letter} -> {name}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    if !problems.is_empty() {
+        println!("\n{} item(s) need naming by hand:", problems.len());
+        for problem in &problems {
+            println!("  - {problem}");
+        }
+    }
+    if map.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to migrate: every option is already named");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+
+    let touched = migrate::apply_options(&cli.course, &map, !dry_run)?;
+    println!();
+    for (path, n) in &touched {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} rename(s)", path.display());
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(if problems.is_empty() {
+            Outcome::Ok
+        } else {
+            Outcome::Findings
+        });
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nrewrote {} file(s)\n\nSeals keep their letters on purpose; see `coursebank migrate \
+         --help`.\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n  coursebank lint",
+        touched.len()
+    );
+    Ok(if problems.is_empty() {
+        Outcome::Ok
+    } else {
+        Outcome::Findings
+    })
+}
+
+/// Rewrites pre-2.0 bank-qualified item ids everywhere they are stored.
+fn migrate_ids(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let files = migrate::qualified_ids(&cli.course)?;
+    for (path, n, _) in &files {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} id(s)", path.display());
+    }
+    if !dry_run {
+        migrate::apply_ids(&cli.course, &files)?;
+    }
+
+    let data = migrate::store_ids(&cli.course, !dry_run)?;
+    for (path, n) in &data {
+        println!("  {:<44} {n:>5} row(s)", path.display());
+    }
+
+    if files.is_empty() && data.is_empty() {
+        println!("nothing to migrate: every item id already names the item course-wide");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nrewrote {} file(s) and {} data file(s)\n\nNext:\n  coursebank validate\n  \
+         coursebank analyze items --all",
+        files.len(),
+        data.len()
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Lists the fragments a course is assembled from, with what each defines.
+fn course_files(cli: &Cli) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let layout = Layout::new(&cli.course);
+    let course = CourseFile::load_dir(&cli.course)?;
+
+    for (path, role) in fragment::files(&layout)? {
+        if !path.exists() {
+            continue;
+        }
+        let shown = path.strip_prefix(&cli.course).unwrap_or(&path);
+        let mut defines: Vec<String> = Vec::new();
+        for section in Section::ALL {
+            let n = course
+                .origins
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|((s, _), p)| *s == section && p.as_path() == shown)
+                .count();
+            if n == 0 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            defines.push(match section {
+                // These are declared once for the whole course, so a count
+                // would always be 1 and would read as though it could be more.
+                Section::Course | Section::Policy => section.key().to_string(),
+                _ => format!("{n} {}", section.key()),
+            });
+        }
+        println!(
+            "{:<40} {:<11} {}",
+            shown.display(),
+            role.label(),
+            defines.join(", ")
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Prints or writes the merged course.
+fn course_build(cli: &Cli, out: Option<&Path>) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let course = CourseFile::load_dir(&cli.course)?;
+    match out {
+        Some(path) => {
+            course.write_resolved(path)?;
+            println!(
+                "wrote {} from {} file(s)",
+                path.display(),
+                course.fragment_paths().len()
+            );
+        }
+        None => print!("{}", yaml::to_string(&course)?),
+    }
+    Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+}
+
+/// Says which file defines an id.
+fn course_where(cli: &Cli, id: &str) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let course = CourseFile::load_dir(&cli.course)?;
+    match course.origin(id) {
+        Some((section, path)) => {
+            println!(
+                "{} defines `{id}` under `{}`",
+                path.display(),
+                section.key()
+            );
+            Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::Unresolved {
+            kind: "id",
+            id: id.to_string(),
+            context: Some(cli.course.display().to_string()),
+        }),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Splits `course.yaml` into fragments, then checks the result reassembles.
+fn course_split(cli: &Cli, dry_run: bool) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let plan = migrate::split_plan(&cli.course)?;
+
+    println!("{} file(s):", plan.files.len());
+    for (path, lines) in plan.lines() {
+        let summary = plan
+            .files
+            .iter()
+            .find(|f| f.path == path)
+            .map(|f| f.summary.clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        println!("  {:<44} {lines:>5} lines  {summary}", path.display());
+    }
+    for note in &plan.notes {
+        println!("\nnote: {note}");
+    }
+
+    if dry_run {
+        println!("\nnothing written");
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+
+    // Loaded before anything is written, since it is the thing the result is
+    // checked against.
+    let before = CourseFile::load(&Layout::new(&cli.course).course_file())?;
+    let written = migrate::apply(&cli.course, &plan)?;
+    println!("\nwrote {} file(s)", written.len());
+
+    let after = CourseFile::load_dir(&cli.course)?;
+    let diffs = migrate::differences(&before, &after)?;
+    if diffs.is_empty() {
+        println!(
+            "reassembled and compared against {COURSE_FILE}.bak: identical\n\nNext:\n  \
+             coursebank validate\n  coursebank schema\n  git add -A && git diff --cached --stat"
+        );
+        return Ok(Outcome::Ok);
+    }
+
+    println!(
+        "\n{} difference(s) between the original and the reassembled course:",
+        diffs.len()
+    );
+    for diff in &diffs {
+        println!("  - {diff}");
+    }
+    println!(
+        "\nThe original is at {COURSE_FILE}.bak. Restore it with\n  mv {COURSE_FILE}.bak \
+         {COURSE_FILE} && rm -r lectures objectives {}",
+        fragment::REFERENCES_FILE
+    );
+    Ok(Outcome::Findings)
+}
+
+/// `references`: list the bibliography, or export it in a citation format.
+pub(crate) fn references(cli: &Cli, sub: &ReferencesCommand) -> Result<Outcome> {
+    let course = CourseFile::load_dir(&cli.course)?;
+
+    match sub {
+        ReferencesCommand::List => {
+            let mut unreachable = 0;
+            for (key, reference) in &course.references {
+                let link = match reference.href(None, None) {
+                    Some(url) => url,
+                    None => {
+                        unreachable += 1;
+                        "(no link)".to_string()
+                    }
+                };
+                println!(
+                    "{:<28} {:<10} {:<9} {:<6} {link}",
+                    truncate(key, 27),
+                    format!("{:?}", reference.kind).to_lowercase(),
+                    format!("{:?}", reference.role).to_lowercase(),
+                    reference.label_or("-"),
+                );
+            }
+            if unreachable > 0 && !cli.quiet {
+                println!(
+                    "\n{unreachable} work(s) with no link. A student report can name one but \
+                     cannot send anyone to it; for a manuscript, add its `doi`."
+                );
+            }
+            Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+        }
+        ReferencesCommand::Export { format, out } => {
+            let format = format.as_format();
+            let text = references::render(&course, format)?;
+            match out {
+                Some(path) => {
+                    yaml::write_text(path, &text)?;
+                    println!(
+                        "wrote {} ({} work(s) as {})",
+                        path.display(),
+                        course.references.len(),
+                        format.label()
+                    );
+                }
+                None => print!("{text}"),
+            }
+            Ok(Outcome::Ok)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 /// What reconciling [`GITIGNORE`] against a file already on disk would do.
 struct GitignoreMerge {
     /// The file to write. Identical to the input when nothing was missing.
@@ -260,6 +688,13 @@ pub(crate) fn validate(cli: &Cli) -> Result<Outcome> {
         }
     }
 
+    let seals = coursebank::seal::SealFile::load_all(&catalog.layout.seals())?;
+    all.extend(catalog.validate_seals(&seals));
+
+    // The statistics are kept in a different file from the questions they
+    // describe, so the link between them is worth checking rather than assuming.
+    all.extend(catalog.calibration.validate(&catalog));
+
     if all.is_empty() {
         if !cli.quiet {
             println!(

src/data/canvas.rs

@@ -337,6 +337,7 @@ pub fn ingest(
                 item_number: number,
                 item_ref,
                 item_version: None,
+                variant: None,
                 selected,
                 selected_source: Vec::new(),
                 eliminated: Vec::new(),

src/data/decode.rs

@@ -248,7 +248,8 @@ impl FormDecoder {
         for (index, placement) in printed.iter().enumerate() {
             let entry = catalog.require(&placement.item)?;
             let item = &entry.item;
-            let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, item.options.len());
+            let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+            let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, shown.len());
 
             let canonical_key: BTreeSet<String> = if placement.key.is_empty() {
                 item.key_letters().into_iter().collect()
@@ -260,8 +261,7 @@ impl FormDecoder {
             let mut to_printed = BTreeMap::new();
             let mut printed_key = Vec::new();
             for (position, source_index) in order.iter().enumerate() {
-                let canonical = item
-                    .options
+                let canonical = shown
                     .get(*source_index)
                     .map(|c| c.id.clone())
                     .unwrap_or_else(|| printed_letter(*source_index));
@@ -738,6 +738,7 @@ mod tests {
             form_position: None,
             item_ref: None,
             item_version: None,
+            variant: None,
             selected: vec![selected.into()],
             eliminated: Vec::new(),
             selected_source: Vec::new(),

src/data/gradescope.rs

@@ -645,6 +645,7 @@ pub fn to_responses(questions: &[Question], ctx: &Context) -> Import {
                 item_number: q.number,
                 item_ref: None,
                 item_version: None,
+                variant: None,
                 selected,
                 selected_source: Vec::new(),
                 eliminated,

src/data/responses.rs

@@ -75,6 +75,16 @@ pub struct Response {
     /// The item version as administered.
     pub item_version: Option<u32>,
 
+    /// The variant administered: which option set this row's student saw.
+    ///
+    /// The grouping key for pooled statistics. Set at ingest from the
+    /// assessment record, and stored so that anything reading the Parquet
+    /// without this tool can group the same way — a store that only has
+    /// `item_ref` cannot tell two option sets of one stem apart, and will
+    /// average them.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub variant: Option<String>,
+
     /// Option letters the student chose.
     pub selected: Vec<String>,
     /// The selected options in the bank's own lettering, written at ingest by
@@ -314,6 +324,49 @@ impl ResponseSet {
         per_item.values().sum()
     }
 
+    /// How many rows each option set of each item has.
+    ///
+    /// What a calibration report needs to be honest about sample size: an item
+    /// administered three times with three different option sets has three
+    /// cells, not one, and reporting "n = 72" of it would be wrong three ways.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// Row counts keyed by item id and variant, with an empty variant for rows
+    /// that carry none.
+    pub fn variants(&self) -> BTreeMap<(String, String), usize> {
+        let mut out: BTreeMap<(String, String), usize> = BTreeMap::new();
+        for row in &self.rows {
+            let Some(item) = &row.item_ref else { continue };
+            let key = (item.clone(), row.variant.clone().unwrap_or_default());
+            *out.entry(key).or_insert(0) += 1;
+        }
+        out
+    }
+
+    /// The rows for one option set of one item.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `item_ref` - the item id.
+    /// * `variant` - the variant digest, or `None` for rows carrying none.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// A set holding only those rows, keeping the warnings of the original.
+    pub fn for_variant(&self, item_ref: &str, variant: Option<&str>) -> ResponseSet {
+        ResponseSet {
+            rows: self
+                .rows
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|r| r.item_ref.as_deref() == Some(item_ref))
+                .filter(|r| r.variant.as_deref() == variant)
+                .cloned()
+                .collect(),
+            warnings: self.warnings.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Builds the response matrix for psychometrics.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
@@ -416,6 +469,9 @@ impl ResponseSet {
             };
             r.item_ref = Some(p.item.clone());
             r.item_version = p.version;
+            // Recorded when the record says so; derived from the option set
+            // otherwise, which is the case for every administration before 2.0.
+            r.variant = p.variant.clone();
             r.bonus = r.bonus || p.bonus;
             r.dropped = r.dropped || p.dropped;
             r.dropped_full_credit = r.dropped_full_credit || p.dropped_with_credit();
@@ -434,6 +490,9 @@ impl ResponseSet {
 
             if let Some(cat) = catalog {
                 if let Some(entry) = cat.get(&p.item) {
+                    if r.variant.is_none() {
+                        r.variant = Some(p.variant_of(&entry.item));
+                    }
                     r.level = Some(entry.item.level);
                     r.learning_targets = if p.learning_targets.is_empty() {
                         entry.item.learning_targets.clone()
@@ -636,6 +695,8 @@ pub struct FlatResponse {
     pub item_ref: String,
     /// The item version, 0 when unknown.
     pub item_version: u32,
+    /// The administered variant, empty when unknown.
+    pub variant: String,
     /// Comma-joined selected letters.
     pub selected: String,
     /// Comma-joined eliminated letters.
@@ -710,6 +771,7 @@ impl FlatResponse {
             item_number: r.item_number,
             item_ref: r.item_ref.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
             item_version: r.item_version.unwrap_or(0),
+            variant: r.variant.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
             selected: r.selected.join(","),
             selected_source: r.selected_source.join(","),
             eliminated: r.eliminated.join(","),
@@ -767,7 +829,11 @@ impl FlatResponse {
             email: none_if_empty(&self.email),
             section: none_if_empty(&self.section),
             item_number: self.item_number,
-            item_ref: none_if_empty(&self.item_ref),
+            // Canonicalized on read, so a term ingested before 2.0 pools with
+            // one ingested after it instead of splitting into two items.
+            item_ref: none_if_empty(&self.item_ref)
+                .map(|id| crate::item::canonical_id(&id).to_string()),
+            variant: none_if_empty(&self.variant),
             item_version: if self.item_version == 0 {
                 None
             } else {
@@ -825,6 +891,7 @@ mod tests {
             item_number: number,
             item_ref: None,
             item_version: None,
+            variant: None,
             selected: vec!["A".into()],
             selected_source: vec![],
             eliminated: vec![],
@@ -843,6 +910,31 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn rows_group_by_the_option_set_they_administered() {
+        let mut set = ResponseSet::new();
+        for (student, variant) in [("s1", "v1"), ("s2", "v1"), ("s3", "v2")] {
+            let mut r = row(student, 1, 1.0);
+            r.item_ref = Some("q-x".into());
+            r.variant = Some(variant.into());
+            set.rows.push(r);
+        }
+        // A row from before the column existed.
+        let mut old = row("s4", 1, 1.0);
+        old.item_ref = Some("q-x".into());
+        set.rows.push(old);
+
+        let counts = set.variants();
+        assert_eq!(counts[&("q-x".to_string(), "v1".to_string())], 2);
+        assert_eq!(counts[&("q-x".to_string(), "v2".to_string())], 1);
+        // Unknown groups on its own rather than joining either set.
+        assert_eq!(counts[&("q-x".to_string(), String::new())], 1);
+
+        assert_eq!(set.for_variant("q-x", Some("v1")).rows.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(set.for_variant("q-x", None).rows.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(set.for_variant("q-other", Some("v1")).rows.len(), 0);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn matrix_is_students_by_items() {
         let mut set = ResponseSet::new();

src/data/store.rs

@@ -316,6 +316,70 @@ pub fn read_path(path: &Path) -> Result<ResponseSet> {
     }
 }
 
+/// Reads a response file without turning its rows into [`Response`]s.
+///
+/// What a migration wants: the rows exactly as they sit on disk, so rewriting
+/// one column cannot disturb another through a round trip.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `path` - the file to read.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The rows.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::Other`] for an unrecognized extension, [`Error::Csv`] or
+/// [`Error::Other`] on a parse failure, and [`Error::FeatureDisabled`] for
+/// Parquet without the feature.
+pub fn read_flat(path: &Path) -> Result<Vec<FlatResponse>> {
+    match Format::from_path(path) {
+        Some(Format::Csv) => {
+            let mut r = csv::Reader::from_path(path).map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                path: path.to_path_buf(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            let mut out = Vec::new();
+            for rec in r.deserialize::<FlatResponse>() {
+                out.push(rec.map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                    path: path.to_path_buf(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?);
+            }
+            Ok(out)
+        }
+        Some(Format::Parquet) => crate::store_parquet::read(path),
+        None => Err(Error::Other(format!(
+            "{} is not a response file; expected a .parquet or .csv",
+            path.display()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Writes flat responses back to the file they came from.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `path` - the destination, whose extension picks the format.
+/// * `rows` - the rows.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::Other`] for an unrecognized extension and
+/// [`Error::FeatureDisabled`] for Parquet without the feature.
+pub fn write_flat(path: &Path, rows: &[FlatResponse]) -> Result<()> {
+    match Format::from_path(path) {
+        Some(Format::Csv) => write_csv(path, rows),
+        Some(Format::Parquet) => write_parquet(path, rows),
+        None => Err(Error::Other(format!(
+            "{} is not a response file; expected a .parquet or .csv",
+            path.display()
+        ))),
+    }
+}
+
 /// Writes flat responses as CSV.
 ///
 /// # Arguments
@@ -550,6 +614,7 @@ mod tests {
             item_number: number,
             item_ref: Some("bank::q-x-001".into()),
             item_version: Some(2),
+            variant: None,
             selected: vec!["C".into()],
             selected_source: vec![],
             eliminated: vec![],
@@ -591,7 +656,9 @@ mod tests {
 
         let back = store.read("BIOSC1540/2026s/exam-4").unwrap();
         assert_eq!(back.rows.len(), 2);
-        assert_eq!(back.rows[0].item_ref.as_deref(), Some("bank::q-x-001"));
+        // Canonicalized on the way in: the row was written with a pre-2.0
+        // `bank::item` key, and reading it yields the item it names.
+        assert_eq!(back.rows[0].item_ref.as_deref(), Some("q-x-001"));
         assert_eq!(back.rows[0].selected, vec!["C".to_string()]);
         assert_eq!(back.rows[0].learning_targets, vec!["lo-a".to_string()]);
 

src/data/store_parquet.rs

@@ -49,6 +49,7 @@ pub fn schema() -> Schema {
         Field::new("item_number", DataType::UInt32, false),
         Field::new("item_ref", DataType::Utf8, false),
         Field::new("item_version", DataType::UInt32, false),
+        Field::new("variant", DataType::Utf8, false),
         Field::new("selected", DataType::Utf8, false),
         Field::new("eliminated", DataType::Utf8, false),
         Field::new("correct", DataType::Utf8, false),
@@ -114,6 +115,7 @@ fn to_batch(rows: &[FlatResponse]) -> Result<RecordBatch> {
         u32c(|r| r.item_number),
         s(|r| &r.item_ref),
         u32c(|r| r.item_version),
+        s(|r| &r.variant),
         s(|r| &r.selected),
         s(|r| &r.eliminated),
         s(|r| &r.correct),
@@ -279,6 +281,9 @@ fn from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, path: &Path) -> Result<Vec<FlatResponse>> {
     let item_number = uints("item_number")?;
     let item_ref = strings("item_ref")?;
     let item_version = uints("item_version")?;
+    // Added after the first stores were written, so absent rather than fatal in
+    // a file from before 2.0; `coursebank migrate variants` fills it in.
+    let variant = optional_strings("variant");
     let selected = strings("selected")?;
     let eliminated = strings("eliminated")?;
     let correct = strings("correct")?;
@@ -314,6 +319,7 @@ fn from_batch(batch: &RecordBatch, path: &Path) -> Result<Vec<FlatResponse>> {
             item_number: item_number.value(i),
             item_ref: item_ref.value(i).to_string(),
             item_version: item_version.value(i),
+            variant: variant.map(|c| c.value(i).to_string()).unwrap_or_default(),
             selected: selected.value(i).to_string(),
             selected_source: selected_source
                 .map(|a| a.value(i).to_string())
@@ -366,6 +372,7 @@ mod tests {
             item_number: number,
             item_ref: "bank::q-a-001".into(),
             item_version: 3,
+            variant: "4c81fa".into(),
             selected: "C".into(),
             eliminated: String::new(),
             correct: "1".into(),

src/export.rs

@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 //! | [`site`] | a Quarto partial and an encrypted bundle | a course page with password-gated solutions |
 //! | [`report`] | Markdown and HTML | students, and yourself |
 //! | [`lecture`] | Markdown | the reading list on the course website |
+//! | [`references`] | Hayagriva, CSL-JSON, BibTeX | Typst, Zotero, LaTeX |
 //!
 //! [`qti`] and [`typst`] share one rule that is easy to get wrong: a form's answer
 //! key must be generated from the same permutation that produced its question
@@ -26,6 +27,7 @@
 pub mod lecture;
 pub mod practice;
 pub mod qti;
+pub mod references;
 pub mod report;
 pub mod site;
 pub mod typst;

src/export/lecture.rs

@@ -374,7 +374,7 @@ fn entry(
 ///
 /// A linked citation when the location has a URL, and a plain one when it does not.
 fn heading(reading: &Reading, key: &str, reference: &Reference, style: Style) -> String {
-    let label = reference.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key);
+    let label = reference.label_or(key);
     let locator = reading.locator.as_deref().unwrap_or("");
     let linked = match reading.resolve_url(reference) {
         Some(url) if !locator.is_empty() => format!("[{locator}]({url})"),
@@ -428,6 +428,7 @@ mod tests {
                 date: None,
                 unit: None,
                 slides_url: None,
+                teaches: Vec::new(),
                 readings: vec![
                     Reading {
                         reference: Some("kuriyan2013molecules".into()),

src/export/practice.rs

@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
 
 use crate::assessment::{AssessmentFile, Form, Placement};
 use crate::catalog::Catalog;
-use crate::course::{CourseFile, Reference};
+use crate::course::CourseFile;
 use crate::error::Result;
 use crate::item::{Choice, Citation, Item};
 use crate::markup;
@@ -289,7 +289,7 @@ fn worksheet_question(
     out.push_str("\n\n");
 
     if item.has_options() {
-        let ordered = ordered_options(item, form, &placement.item);
+        let ordered = ordered_options(item, placement, form);
         for (position, source) in ordered.iter().enumerate() {
             out.push_str(&format!(
                 "{}. {}\n",
@@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ fn solution_question(
     out.push_str("\n\n");
 
     if item.has_options() {
-        let ordered = ordered_options(item, form, &placement.item);
+        let ordered = ordered_options(item, placement, form);
         for (position, source) in ordered.iter().enumerate() {
             let mark = if source.correct { " ✓" } else { "" };
             let note = source
@@ -427,9 +427,9 @@ fn cite(course: &CourseFile, citation: &Citation) -> String {
     let Some(reference) = course.references.get(key) else {
         return citation.display();
     };
-    let label = reference.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key);
+    let label = reference.label_or(key);
     let locator = citation.locator.as_deref().unwrap_or("");
-    match resolve_url(citation, reference) {
+    match citation.href(reference) {
         Some(url) if !locator.is_empty() => format!("`{label}` [{locator}]({url})"),
         Some(url) => format!("`{label}` [{}]({url})", reference.title),
         None if !locator.is_empty() => format!("`{label}` {locator}"),
@@ -437,21 +437,6 @@ fn cite(course: &CourseFile, citation: &Citation) -> String {
     }
 }
 
-/// The URL for a citation: its own `url`, else the reference `base_url` joined with
-/// the citation `path`.
-fn resolve_url(citation: &Citation, reference: &Reference) -> Option<String> {
-    if let Some(url) = &citation.url {
-        return Some(url.clone());
-    }
-    let path = citation.path.as_deref()?;
-    let base = reference.base_url.as_deref()?;
-    Some(match (base.ends_with('/'), path.starts_with('/')) {
-        (true, true) => format!("{base}{}", &path[1..]),
-        (false, false) => format!("{base}/{path}"),
-        _ => format!("{base}{path}"),
-    })
-}
-
 /// The `## Question N` heading, marking a bonus item.
 fn heading(number: usize, placement: &Placement) -> String {
     let bonus = if placement.bonus { " (bonus)" } else { "" };
@@ -473,10 +458,11 @@ fn meta_line(placement: &Placement, item: &Item) -> String {
 /// Salted with the item's global id, the same value the Typst and QTI exports use,
 /// so a worksheet built for form B lists options in the order that form's paper and
 /// its Canvas quiz do.
-fn ordered_options<'a>(item: &'a Item, form: &Form, uid: &str) -> Vec<&'a Choice> {
-    select::option_order(form, uid, item.options.len())
+fn ordered_options<'a>(item: &'a Item, placement: &Placement, form: &Form) -> Vec<&'a Choice> {
+    let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+    select::option_order(form, &placement.item, shown.len())
         .into_iter()
-        .map(|i| &item.options[i])
+        .map(|i| shown[i])
         .collect()
 }
 
@@ -593,6 +579,9 @@ items:
                     number: 1,
                     item: "l11::q-enthalpy-001".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(1.0),
                     bonus: false,
@@ -608,6 +597,9 @@ items:
                     number: 2,
                     item: "l11::q-enthalpy-op-001".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(2.0),
                     bonus: false,

src/export/qti.rs

@@ -476,10 +476,12 @@ pub fn build(catalog: &Catalog, record: &AssessmentFile, opts: &QtiOptions) -> R
         if !placement.bonus {
             total_points += points;
         }
+        let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
         items.push(build_item(
             &record.assessment.id,
             &placement.item,
             item,
+            &shown,
             points,
             opts,
         ));
@@ -564,14 +566,21 @@ pub fn build(catalog: &Catalog, record: &AssessmentFile, opts: &QtiOptions) -> R
 /// # Returns
 ///
 /// The element.
-fn build_item(assessment_id: &str, uid: &str, item: &Item, points: f64, opts: &QtiOptions) -> Node {
+fn build_item(
+    assessment_id: &str,
+    uid: &str,
+    item: &Item,
+    shown: &[&crate::item::Choice],
+    points: f64,
+    opts: &QtiOptions,
+) -> Node {
     // An open-response item is an essay in Canvas: no choices, graded by hand.
     if !item.format.has_options() {
         return build_essay_item(assessment_id, uid, item, points, opts);
     }
 
-    let order = select::option_order(&opts.form, uid, item.options.len());
-    let ordered: Vec<&crate::item::Choice> = order.iter().map(|i| &item.options[*i]).collect();
+    let order = select::option_order(&opts.form, uid, shown.len());
+    let ordered: Vec<&crate::item::Choice> = order.iter().map(|i| shown[*i]).collect();
 
     // Option identifiers are numeric, mirroring Canvas's own exports, and are
     // derived from the item id so they survive regeneration.
@@ -1259,6 +1268,7 @@ mod tests {
             defense: None,
             feedback_student: None,
             selection_rate_expected: None,
+            retired: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -1389,6 +1399,9 @@ items:
                     number: 1,
                     item: "b::q-mcq".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(1.0),
                     bonus: false,
@@ -1404,6 +1417,9 @@ items:
                     number: 2,
                     item: "b::q-open".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(2.0),
                     bonus: false,

src/export/references.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,498 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Prosperity-3.0.0
+// Copyright Scientific Computing Studio
+// Source: https://git.scient.ing/education/coursebank
+
+//! The bibliography, in the formats other tools read.
+//!
+//! `references.yaml` is the authoritative copy, and it is shaped for a reading
+//! list: it carries a `label` that reports print, and a `role` saying whether
+//! the course requires the work or offers it as background. No general citation
+//! format has either field, which is why the course keeps its own.
+//!
+//! What the other formats are for is everything downstream of the reading list:
+//!
+//! | Format | Read by | Gets you |
+//! |:--|:--|:--|
+//! | [`Format::Hayagriva`] | Typst | real citations in a printed exam or report |
+//! | [`Format::CslJson`] | Zotero, Pandoc, CSL processors | a bibliography in any style |
+//! | [`Format::Bibtex`] | LaTeX, most reference managers | the lowest common denominator |
+//!
+//! All three are generated. The argument is the same one the lecture reading
+//! list makes: two copies of a citation drift within a term, and one copy plus a
+//! build step does not.
+//!
+//! # What does not survive the trip
+//!
+//! `label`, `role`, `base_url`, and `note` have nowhere to go in any of the
+//! three, so they stay behind. That is the reason this is an export rather than
+//! a migration: the course file is not recoverable from its own bibliography
+//! export, and nothing reads these files back in.
+
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+
+use serde::Serialize;
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
+
+use crate::course::{CourseFile, Reference, ReferenceKind};
+use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::yaml;
+
+/// Which citation format to write.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum Format {
+    /// Hayagriva YAML, which Typst's `#bibliography` reads natively.
+    Hayagriva,
+    /// CSL-JSON, which Zotero, Pandoc, and every CSL processor read.
+    CslJson,
+    /// BibTeX, for LaTeX and for reference managers that read nothing else.
+    Bibtex,
+}
+
+impl Format {
+    /// The conventional file extension.
+    pub fn extension(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Format::Hayagriva => "yml",
+            Format::CslJson => "json",
+            Format::Bibtex => "bib",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The name used on the command line.
+    pub fn label(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Format::Hayagriva => "hayagriva",
+            Format::CslJson => "csl-json",
+            Format::Bibtex => "bibtex",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Renders a course's bibliography.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `course` - the loaded course.
+/// * `format` - which format to write.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The document, keyed or ordered by citation key so the output is stable
+/// between runs.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`crate::error::Error::Other`] if the intermediate structure cannot
+/// be serialized.
+pub fn render(course: &CourseFile, format: Format) -> Result<String> {
+    match format {
+        Format::Hayagriva => hayagriva(course),
+        Format::CslJson => csl_json(course),
+        Format::Bibtex => Ok(bibtex(course)),
+    }
+}
+
+// --- Hayagriva ---
+
+/// One Hayagriva entry.
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct Entry {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: &'static str,
+    title: String,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    author: Vec<String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    date: Option<u32>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    edition: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    publisher: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(rename = "page-range", skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    page_range: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(rename = "serial-number", skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    serial_number: BTreeMap<&'static str, String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    url: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    parent: Option<Parent>,
+}
+
+/// The container a Hayagriva entry sits inside.
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize)]
+struct Parent {
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]
+    kind: &'static str,
+    title: String,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    volume: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    issue: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    publisher: Option<String>,
+}
+
+/// Renders the bibliography as Hayagriva YAML.
+fn hayagriva(course: &CourseFile) -> Result<String> {
+    let entries: BTreeMap<&String, Entry> = course
+        .references
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(key, reference)| (key, entry(reference)))
+        .collect();
+    yaml::to_string(&entries)
+}
+
+/// Maps one reference onto a Hayagriva entry.
+fn entry(reference: &Reference) -> Entry {
+    let mut serial: BTreeMap<&'static str, String> = BTreeMap::new();
+    for (field, value) in [
+        ("doi", &reference.doi),
+        ("isbn", &reference.isbn),
+        ("arxiv", &reference.arxiv),
+        ("pmid", &reference.pmid),
+        ("pmcid", &reference.pmcid),
+    ] {
+        if let Some(value) = value {
+            serial.insert(field, value.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    // A chapter sits in a book and an article sits in a periodical, and
+    // Hayagriva wants that said with a parent rather than a flat field.
+    let parent = reference
+        .container
+        .as_ref()
+        .map(|title| match reference.kind {
+            ReferenceKind::Chapter => Parent {
+                kind: "book",
+                title: title.clone(),
+                volume: reference.volume.clone(),
+                issue: None,
+                publisher: reference.publisher.clone(),
+            },
+            _ => Parent {
+                kind: "periodical",
+                title: title.clone(),
+                volume: reference.volume.clone(),
+                issue: reference.issue.clone(),
+                publisher: None,
+            },
+        });
+
+    Entry {
+        kind: hayagriva_kind(reference.kind),
+        title: reference.title.clone(),
+        author: reference.authors.clone(),
+        date: reference.year,
+        edition: reference.edition.clone(),
+        // The publisher belongs to the container when there is one.
+        publisher: if parent.is_some() {
+            None
+        } else {
+            reference.publisher.clone()
+        },
+        page_range: reference.pages.clone(),
+        serial_number: serial,
+        url: reference.url.clone(),
+        parent,
+    }
+}
+
+/// The Hayagriva entry type for a course reference kind.
+fn hayagriva_kind(kind: ReferenceKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        ReferenceKind::Book => "book",
+        ReferenceKind::Chapter => "chapter",
+        // Hayagriva has no preprint type. An article with no periodical parent
+        // is what a preprint is anyway.
+        ReferenceKind::Article | ReferenceKind::Preprint => "article",
+        ReferenceKind::Thesis => "thesis",
+        ReferenceKind::Website => "web",
+        ReferenceKind::Software | ReferenceKind::Dataset => "repository",
+        ReferenceKind::Video => "video",
+        ReferenceKind::Other => "misc",
+    }
+}
+
+// --- CSL-JSON ---
+
+/// Renders the bibliography as CSL-JSON.
+fn csl_json(course: &CourseFile) -> Result<String> {
+    let items: Vec<Value> = course
+        .references
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(key, reference)| csl_item(key, reference))
+        .collect();
+    serde_json::to_string_pretty(&items)
+        .map(|text| format!("{text}\n"))
+        .map_err(crate::error::Error::other)
+}
+
+/// One CSL-JSON item.
+fn csl_item(key: &str, reference: &Reference) -> Value {
+    let mut item = json!({
+        "id": key,
+        "type": csl_kind(reference.kind),
+        "title": reference.title,
+    });
+    let map = item.as_object_mut().expect("built from a JSON object");
+
+    if !reference.authors.is_empty() {
+        map.insert(
+            "author".to_string(),
+            Value::Array(reference.authors.iter().map(|a| csl_name(a)).collect()),
+        );
+    }
+    if let Some(year) = reference.year {
+        map.insert("issued".to_string(), json!({ "date-parts": [[year]] }));
+    }
+    for (field, value) in [
+        ("container-title", &reference.container),
+        ("publisher", &reference.publisher),
+        ("volume", &reference.volume),
+        ("issue", &reference.issue),
+        ("page", &reference.pages),
+        ("edition", &reference.edition),
+        ("DOI", &reference.doi),
+        ("ISBN", &reference.isbn),
+        ("PMID", &reference.pmid),
+        ("PMCID", &reference.pmcid),
+        ("URL", &reference.url),
+    ] {
+        if let Some(value) = value {
+            map.insert(field.to_string(), Value::String(value.clone()));
+        }
+    }
+    item
+}
+
+/// Splits `Family, Given` into a CSL name, or keeps it whole.
+///
+/// A name with no comma is not a name this code can take apart — an
+/// organization, or a single mononym — so it goes in `literal`, which is what
+/// CSL has the field for.
+fn csl_name(author: &str) -> Value {
+    match author.split_once(',') {
+        Some((family, given)) => json!({
+            "family": family.trim(),
+            "given": given.trim(),
+        }),
+        None => json!({ "literal": author.trim() }),
+    }
+}
+
+/// The CSL type for a course reference kind.
+fn csl_kind(kind: ReferenceKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        ReferenceKind::Book => "book",
+        ReferenceKind::Chapter => "chapter",
+        ReferenceKind::Article => "article-journal",
+        ReferenceKind::Preprint => "article",
+        ReferenceKind::Thesis => "thesis",
+        ReferenceKind::Website => "webpage",
+        ReferenceKind::Software => "software",
+        ReferenceKind::Dataset => "dataset",
+        ReferenceKind::Video => "motion_picture",
+        ReferenceKind::Other => "document",
+    }
+}
+
+// --- BibTeX ---
+
+/// Renders the bibliography as BibTeX.
+fn bibtex(course: &CourseFile) -> String {
+    let mut out = String::new();
+    for (key, reference) in &course.references {
+        out.push_str(&bibtex_entry(key, reference));
+        out.push('\n');
+    }
+    out
+}
+
+/// One BibTeX entry.
+fn bibtex_entry(key: &str, reference: &Reference) -> String {
+    let mut fields: Vec<(&str, String)> = vec![("title", reference.title.clone())];
+    if !reference.authors.is_empty() {
+        fields.push(("author", reference.authors.join(" and ")));
+    }
+    if let Some(year) = reference.year {
+        fields.push(("year", year.to_string()));
+    }
+    if let Some(container) = &reference.container {
+        let field = match reference.kind {
+            ReferenceKind::Chapter => "booktitle",
+            _ => "journal",
+        };
+        fields.push((field, container.clone()));
+    }
+    for (field, value) in [
+        ("volume", &reference.volume),
+        ("number", &reference.issue),
+        ("edition", &reference.edition),
+        ("publisher", &reference.publisher),
+        ("doi", &reference.doi),
+        ("isbn", &reference.isbn),
+        ("url", &reference.url),
+        ("note", &reference.note),
+    ] {
+        if let Some(value) = value {
+            fields.push((field, value.clone()));
+        }
+    }
+    if let Some(pages) = &reference.pages {
+        fields.push(("pages", en_dash(pages)));
+    }
+
+    let body: String = fields
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(field, value)| format!("  {field} = {{{}}},\n", escape_tex(value)))
+        .collect();
+    format!("@{}{{{key},\n{body}}}\n", bibtex_kind(reference.kind))
+}
+
+/// The BibTeX entry type for a course reference kind.
+fn bibtex_kind(kind: ReferenceKind) -> &'static str {
+    match kind {
+        ReferenceKind::Book => "book",
+        ReferenceKind::Chapter => "incollection",
+        ReferenceKind::Article => "article",
+        ReferenceKind::Thesis => "phdthesis",
+        ReferenceKind::Website => "online",
+        // BibTeX proper has nothing for these. `misc` with a `note` is what
+        // every style guide says to do, and biblatex users can convert.
+        ReferenceKind::Preprint
+        | ReferenceKind::Software
+        | ReferenceKind::Dataset
+        | ReferenceKind::Video
+        | ReferenceKind::Other => "misc",
+    }
+}
+
+/// Escapes the characters BibTeX treats as syntax.
+///
+/// Deliberately short: a publisher called `John Wiley & Sons` is the case that
+/// actually occurs, and escaping more than this risks mangling the `$...$` in a
+/// title that carries real mathematics.
+fn escape_tex(value: &str) -> String {
+    value.replace('&', "\\&").replace('%', "\\%")
+}
+
+/// Turns a hyphenated page range into the en dash BibTeX expects.
+fn en_dash(pages: &str) -> String {
+    let parts: Vec<&str> = pages.split('-').collect();
+    if parts.len() == 2 && parts.iter().all(|p| !p.is_empty()) {
+        return format!("{}--{}", parts[0].trim(), parts[1].trim());
+    }
+    pages.to_string()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::course::ReferenceRole;
+
+    fn course() -> CourseFile {
+        let mut c = CourseFile::skeleton("BIOSC 1540", "Computational Biology", "2026f");
+        c.references.insert(
+            "ismail2023bioinformatics".into(),
+            Reference {
+                label: Some("IBB".into()),
+                kind: ReferenceKind::Book,
+                role: ReferenceRole::Supplemental,
+                title: "Bioinformatics: A practical guide".into(),
+                authors: vec!["Ismail, H. D.".into()],
+                year: Some(2023),
+                publisher: Some("CRC Press".into()),
+                base_url: Some("https://library.example.org/ismail2023/".into()),
+                isbn: Some("9781032366423".into()),
+                ..Reference::default()
+            },
+        );
+        c.references.insert(
+            "altschul1990basic".into(),
+            Reference {
+                label: Some("BLAST".into()),
+                kind: ReferenceKind::Article,
+                role: ReferenceRole::Required,
+                title: "Basic local alignment search tool".into(),
+                authors: vec![
+                    "Altschul, S. F.".into(),
+                    "Gish, W.".into(),
+                    "Wiley & Sons".into(),
+                ],
+                year: Some(1990),
+                container: Some("Journal of Molecular Biology".into()),
+                volume: Some("215".into()),
+                issue: Some("3".into()),
+                pages: Some("403-410".into()),
+                doi: Some("10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2".into()),
+                pmid: Some("2231712".into()),
+                ..Reference::default()
+            },
+        );
+        c
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn hayagriva_nests_an_article_under_its_periodical() {
+        let out = render(&course(), Format::Hayagriva).unwrap();
+        assert!(out.contains("altschul1990basic:"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("type: article"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("type: periodical"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("Journal of Molecular Biology"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("page-range: 403-410"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("doi: 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2"), "{out}");
+        // Parses back as YAML, which is what Typst will do to it.
+        let back: serde_yaml_ng::Value = serde_yaml_ng::from_str(&out).unwrap();
+        assert!(back.get("ismail2023bioinformatics").is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn hayagriva_keeps_a_books_publisher_on_the_book() {
+        let out = render(&course(), Format::Hayagriva).unwrap();
+        let parsed: serde_yaml_ng::Value = serde_yaml_ng::from_str(&out).unwrap();
+        let book = parsed.get("ismail2023bioinformatics").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(book.get("publisher").unwrap().as_str(), Some("CRC Press"));
+        assert!(book.get("parent").is_none());
+        // `label`, `role`, and `base_url` have nowhere to go and stay behind.
+        assert!(book.get("label").is_none());
+        assert!(book.get("base_url").is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn csl_json_splits_names_and_keeps_organizations_whole() {
+        let out = render(&course(), Format::CslJson).unwrap();
+        let items: Vec<Value> = serde_json::from_str(&out).unwrap();
+        let article = items
+            .iter()
+            .find(|i| i["id"] == "altschul1990basic")
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(article["type"], "article-journal");
+        assert_eq!(article["author"][0]["family"], "Altschul");
+        assert_eq!(article["author"][0]["given"], "S. F.");
+        assert_eq!(article["author"][2]["literal"], "Wiley & Sons");
+        assert_eq!(article["issued"]["date-parts"][0][0], 1990);
+        assert_eq!(article["DOI"], "10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bibtex_escapes_ampersands_and_dashes_a_page_range() {
+        let out = render(&course(), Format::Bibtex).unwrap();
+        assert!(out.contains("@article{altschul1990basic,"), "{out}");
+        assert!(
+            out.contains("journal = {Journal of Molecular Biology},"),
+            "{out}"
+        );
+        assert!(out.contains("pages = {403--410},"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("Wiley \\& Sons"), "{out}");
+        assert!(out.contains("@book{ismail2023bioinformatics,"), "{out}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_course_with_no_bibliography_renders_empty_rather_than_failing() {
+        let mut c = course();
+        c.references.clear();
+        assert_eq!(render(&c, Format::Bibtex).unwrap(), "");
+        assert_eq!(render(&c, Format::CslJson).unwrap().trim(), "[]");
+    }
+}

src/export/site.rs

@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
 
 use crate::assessment::{AssessmentFile, Form, Placement};
 use crate::catalog::Catalog;
-use crate::course::{CourseFile, Reference};
+use crate::course::CourseFile;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::item::{Choice, Citation, Item, Solution};
 use crate::markup;
@@ -226,12 +226,13 @@ fn question_block(
 
     if item.has_options() {
         b.push_str(":::: {.q-choices}\n");
-        let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, item.options.len());
+        let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+        let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, shown.len());
         for (position, &source) in order.iter().enumerate() {
             b.push_str(&format!(
                 "{}. {}\n",
                 position + 1,
-                markup::to_markdown(&item.options[source].text)
+                markup::to_markdown(&shown[source].text)
             ));
         }
         b.push_str("::::\n\n");
@@ -295,11 +296,12 @@ fn fragment(
 /// A single-best-answer or multiple-response fragment: the key, the model answer,
 /// the explanation, then per-distractor feedback.
 fn choice_fragment(course: &CourseFile, placement: &Placement, item: &Item, form: &Form) -> String {
-    let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, item.options.len());
+    let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+    let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, shown.len());
     let printed: Vec<(usize, &Choice)> = order
         .iter()
         .enumerate()
-        .map(|(position, &source)| (position, &item.options[source]))
+        .map(|(position, &source)| (position, shown[source]))
         .collect();
 
     let mut out = String::new();
@@ -472,7 +474,7 @@ fn cite_html(course: &CourseFile, citation: &Citation) -> String {
     let Some(reference) = course.references.get(key) else {
         return markup::escape_html(&citation.display());
     };
-    let label = reference.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key);
+    let label = reference.label_or(key);
     let locator = citation.locator.as_deref().unwrap_or("");
     let body = if locator.is_empty() {
         markup::escape_html(label)
@@ -483,27 +485,12 @@ fn cite_html(course: &CourseFile, citation: &Citation) -> String {
             markup::escape_html(locator)
         )
     };
-    match resolve_url(citation, reference) {
+    match citation.href(reference) {
         Some(url) => format!("<a href=\"{}\">{body}</a>", markup::escape_html(&url)),
         None => body,
     }
 }
 
-/// Resolves a citation's link, from an explicit URL or a path joined to the
-/// reference's base URL.
-fn resolve_url(citation: &Citation, reference: &Reference) -> Option<String> {
-    if let Some(url) = &citation.url {
-        return Some(url.clone());
-    }
-    let path = citation.path.as_deref()?;
-    let base = reference.base_url.as_deref()?;
-    Some(match (base.ends_with('/'), path.starts_with('/')) {
-        (true, true) => format!("{base}{}", &path[1..]),
-        (false, false) => format!("{base}/{path}"),
-        _ => format!("{base}{path}"),
-    })
-}
-
 // --- math-aware markup ---
 
 /// One run of source text, split on math delimiters.
@@ -858,6 +845,9 @@ items:
                     number: 1,
                     item: "b::q-mcq".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(1.0),
                     bonus: false,
@@ -873,6 +863,9 @@ items:
                     number: 2,
                     item: "b::q-open".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: Some(2.0),
                     bonus: false,

src/export/typst.rs

@@ -431,6 +431,9 @@ mod tests {
                     number: 1,
                     item: "b::q-1".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: None,
                     bonus: false,
@@ -446,6 +449,9 @@ mod tests {
                     number: 2,
                     item: "b::q-2".into(),
                     version: None,
+                    stem_digest: None,
+                    distractors: Vec::new(),
+                    variant: None,
                     fingerprint: None,
                     points: None,
                     bonus: false,
@@ -464,6 +470,6 @@ mod tests {
             .filter(|p| p.was_printed())
             .map(|p| p.number)
             .collect();
-        assert_eq!(printable, vec![2]);
+        assert_eq!(printable, vec![1, 2]);
     }
 }

src/export/typst/diagnostic.rs

@@ -1281,6 +1281,7 @@ mod tests {
             blueprint: Vec::new(),
             patterns: Vec::new(),
             warnings: Vec::new(),
+            dropped_detail: Vec::new(),
         }
     }
 

src/export/typst/payload.rs

@@ -411,11 +411,12 @@ pub fn build(
             _ => (None, None),
         };
 
-        let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, item.options.len());
+        let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+        let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, shown.len());
         let options: Vec<Opt> = order
             .iter()
             .enumerate()
-            .map(|(position, source_index)| option(&item.options[*source_index], position, config))
+            .map(|(position, source_index)| option(shown[*source_index], position, config))
             .collect();
 
         let key = if config.reveal.shows_key() {

src/lib.rs

@@ -18,12 +18,19 @@
 //!
 //! | File | Holds | Written by |
 //! |:--|:--|:--|
-//! | `course.yaml` | identity, policy, objectives, lectures | you |
+//! | `course.yaml` | identity, policy, units | you |
+//! | `references.yaml` | the works the course cites | you |
+//! | `lectures/*.yaml` | one lecture: readings, and what it teaches | you |
+//! | `objectives/*.yaml` | one objective and its learning targets | you |
 //! | `banks/*.yaml` | items, with design intent and pooled statistics | you, then `calibrate` |
 //! | `assessments/*.yaml` | what was given, to whom, when | `assemble`, then you |
 //! | `data/*.parquet` | one row per student per item | `ingest` |
 //!
-//! Three of the four are hand-editable YAML meant to be reviewed in a pull request.
+//! The first four are one course file split by subject; `coursebank course build`
+//! prints the merged result, and a course that keeps everything in `course.yaml`
+//! still loads unchanged. See [`course::fragment`].
+//!
+//! Most of these are hand-editable YAML meant to be reviewed in a pull request.
 //! Only the response data is machine-only, and it is stored in an open columnar
 //! format so pandas, polars, R, and DuckDB can all read it without this tool.
 //!
@@ -95,12 +102,17 @@ pub mod data;
 pub mod error;
 pub mod export;
 pub mod guide;
+pub mod migrate;
 pub mod model;
 pub mod util;
 
-pub use util::{date, hash, markup, rng, yaml, zipfile};
+pub use util::{citation, date, hash, markup, rng, yaml, zipfile};
 
-pub use model::{assessment, bank, catalog, course, history, item, layout, seal, taxonomy};
+pub use model::{
+    assessment, bank, calibration, catalog, course, history, item, layout, seal, taxonomy,
+};
+
+pub use course::fragment;
 
 pub use authoring::{jsonschema, lint, select};
 
@@ -110,7 +122,7 @@ pub use data::{canvas, decode, gradescope, intake, responses, store};
 pub use analysis::{calibrate, classical, diagnostic, irt, students};
 
 pub use export::site;
-pub use export::{lecture, practice, qti, report, typst};
+pub use export::{lecture, practice, qti, references, report, typst};
 
 pub use catalog::Catalog;
 pub use course::{CourseFile, SCHEMA_VERSION};

src/model.rs

@@ -12,7 +12,9 @@
 //! ```text
 //! taxonomy      levels, cognitive processes, error types, status, flags
 //!    │
-//! course        course.yaml: identity, policy, objectives, lectures, stimuli
+//! course        identity, policy, objectives, lectures, stimuli
+//!    │            └─ course::fragment  merges course.yaml, references.yaml,
+//!    │                                 lectures/*.yaml, objectives/*.yaml
 //!    │
 //! item          one question: stem, options, design intent, calibration
 //!    │
@@ -26,6 +28,7 @@
 
 pub mod assessment;
 pub mod bank;
+pub mod calibration;
 pub mod catalog;
 pub mod course;
 pub mod history;

src/model/assessment.rs

@@ -248,11 +248,28 @@ pub struct Placement {
     /// Printed question number. This is the join key to grading exports, which
     /// is the entire reason this record exists.
     pub number: u32,
-    /// The item's global id, `bank::item`.
+    /// The item's id, which names it course-wide. A pre-2.0 `bank::item`
+    /// value still resolves; `coursebank migrate ids` rewrites it.
     pub item: String,
     /// The item version used.
-    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    /// Retained only so a pre-2.0 record still loads. Ignored.
+    ///
+    /// What it was for — knowing whether the item has changed since this
+    /// administration — is [`Placement::stem_digest`] and
+    /// [`Placement::fingerprint`], which say *what* changed rather than that
+    /// something did.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
     pub version: Option<u32>,
+
+    /// The stem's digest as administered. See [`crate::item::Item::stem_digest`].
+    ///
+    /// Distinct from `fingerprint`, which covers the options too. A changed
+    /// fingerprint means the pooled statistics describe an older wording; a
+    /// changed stem digest means this is no longer the same question, which
+    /// [`crate::catalog::Catalog::validate_record`] treats as an error rather
+    /// than a note.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub stem_digest: Option<String>,
     /// The content fingerprint as used, so later edits are detectable.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub fingerprint: Option<String>,
@@ -265,6 +282,26 @@ pub struct Placement {
     /// The keyed letters as administered.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
     pub key: Vec<String>,
+
+    /// The option ids offered alongside the key.
+    ///
+    /// Resolved when the assessment is assembled and written out explicitly,
+    /// never sampled at export time. A blueprint may ask for a draw; the record
+    /// holds what was drawn. Otherwise a bank edit between assembling and
+    /// printing silently changes the paper, and the key printed on Tuesday
+    /// disagrees with the one printed on Wednesday.
+    ///
+    /// Empty means the whole pool, which is what every pre-2.0 record meant.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub distractors: Vec<String>,
+
+    /// The digest of the item as this administration showed it.
+    ///
+    /// See [`crate::item::Item::variant_digest`]. The key statistics pool on:
+    /// two administrations of one stem with different distractors are two
+    /// items, and averaging them is averaging different questions.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub variant: Option<String>,
     /// The level as administered, denormalized so a record reads standalone.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub level: Option<Level>,
@@ -340,6 +377,27 @@ pub enum DropStyle {
 }
 
 impl Placement {
+    /// The variant this placement administered.
+    ///
+    /// Recorded when the assessment was assembled; derived from the option set
+    /// otherwise, which is what makes every record written before 2.0 poolable
+    /// without being rewritten. A pre-2.0 placement names its key and no
+    /// distractors, which means the whole pool — a well-defined option set, and
+    /// so a well-defined variant.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `item` - the item this placement names.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The digest.
+    pub fn variant_of(&self, item: &crate::item::Item) -> String {
+        self.variant
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| item.variant_digest(&self.key, &self.distractors))
+    }
+
     /// Whether this placement was dropped by crediting every option.
     ///
     /// # Returns

src/model/bank.rs

@@ -352,8 +352,10 @@ fn validate_item(
     if it.stem.trim().is_empty() {
         issues.push("empty stem".into());
     }
-    if it.version == 0 {
-        issues.push("version must be at least 1".into());
+    if let Some(replaced) = &it.supersedes {
+        if *replaced == it.id {
+            issues.push("supersedes names this item".into());
+        }
     }
 
     // --- options ----
@@ -379,21 +381,37 @@ fn validate_item(
         if o.text.trim().is_empty() {
             issues.push(format!("option {pos}: empty text"));
         }
-        let letter_ok = o.id.len() == 1
-            && o.id
-                .chars()
-                .next()
-                .map(|c| c.is_ascii_uppercase() && c <= 'H')
-                .unwrap_or(false);
-        if !letter_ok {
+        // Two forms are accepted: the 2.0 name, and the letter that preceded
+        // it. A bank migrates when `coursebank migrate options` is run on it,
+        // not when the tool is upgraded, so a course mid-migration still loads.
+        let slug_ok = o.id.strip_prefix("o-").is_some_and(|rest| {
+            !rest.is_empty()
+                && !rest.starts_with('-')
+                && !rest.ends_with('-')
+                && !rest.contains("--")
+                && rest
+                    .chars()
+                    .all(|c| c.is_ascii_lowercase() || c.is_ascii_digit() || c == '-')
+        });
+        if !slug_ok && !Item::is_legacy_option_id(&o.id) {
             issues.push(format!(
-                "option {pos}: id `{}` must be a single letter A through H",
+                "option {pos}: id `{}` is neither a name such as `o-fourth-line` nor a pre-2.0 \
+                 letter A through H",
                 o.id
             ));
         }
         if seen.contains(&o.id.as_str()) {
             issues.push(format!("option {pos}: duplicate option id `{}`", o.id));
         }
+        if let Some(retirement) = &o.retired {
+            if retirement.reason.trim().is_empty() {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "option {pos}: retired without a reason. The reason is the finding — what \
+                     the option did or failed to do — and it is the only part of a retirement \
+                     that is worth anything later."
+                ));
+            }
+        }
         seen.push(&o.id);
 
         let credit = o.credit();
@@ -433,14 +451,27 @@ fn validate_item(
     }
 
     // --- key ---
+    // Counted over the pool that can still be drawn: a retired option is a
+    // record, not an offer.
+    let (live_keys, live_distractors) = it.pool();
     let keys = it.key_indices();
     match it.format {
         Format::SingleBestAnswer => {
-            if keys.len() != 1 {
-                issues.push(format!(
-                    "single_best_answer needs exactly one keyed option, has {}",
-                    keys.len()
-                ));
+            // Several defensible keys is a pool, not a bug — it is what lets you
+            // test whether "fourth" or "last of the four" is doing the work.
+            // Exactly one of them reaches a student, and that is the
+            // placement's business: see
+            // [`crate::catalog::Catalog::validate_record`].
+            if live_keys.is_empty() {
+                issues.push("single_best_answer needs at least one keyed option".into());
+            }
+            if live_distractors.is_empty() {
+                let retired = it.options.iter().any(|o| o.retired.is_some());
+                issues.push(if retired {
+                    "every distractor is retired, so nothing can be drawn against the key".into()
+                } else {
+                    "has no option that is not keyed correct, so it asks nothing".to_string()
+                });
             }
         }
         Format::MultipleResponse => {
@@ -499,57 +530,12 @@ fn validate_item(
     }
 
     // --- calibration plausibility ------
-    if let Some(c) = &it.calibration {
-        if let Some(p) = c.p_value {
-            if !(0.0..=1.0).contains(&p) {
-                issues.push(format!(
-                    "calibration.p_value must be between 0 and 1, got {p}"
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-        if let Some(r) = c.point_biserial {
-            if !(-1.0..=1.0).contains(&r) {
-                issues.push(format!(
-                    "calibration.point_biserial must be between -1 and 1, got {r}"
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-        for letter in c.option_stats.keys() {
-            if it.option(letter).is_none() {
-                issues.push(format!(
-                    "calibration.option_stats has `{letter}`, which is not an option of this item"
-                ));
-            }
-        }
-        if let Some(irt) = &c.irt {
-            if irt.a <= 0.0 {
-                issues.push(format!("calibration.irt.a must be positive, got {}", irt.a));
-            }
-            if let Some(cp) = irt.c {
-                if !(0.0..1.0).contains(&cp) {
-                    issues.push(format!("calibration.irt.c must be in [0, 1), got {cp}"));
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    // --- history must be coherent ------
-    let mut last_version = 0u32;
-    for (i, h) in it.history.iter().enumerate() {
-        if h.version <= last_version {
-            issues.push(format!(
-                "history entry {} has version {} which does not increase",
-                i + 1,
-                h.version
-            ));
-        }
-        last_version = h.version;
-    }
-    if !it.history.is_empty() && last_version > it.version {
-        issues.push(format!(
-            "history records version {last_version} but the item says version {}",
-            it.version
-        ));
+    if it.calibration.is_some() {
+        issues.push(
+            "has a `calibration:` block, but statistics live in analysis/calibration.yaml since \
+             2.0. A bank's diff should be a change of intent, not the output of a grading run."
+                .to_string(),
+        );
     }
 
     // --- retirement -----
@@ -790,20 +776,43 @@ mod tests {
     options:
       - { id: A, text: a, correct: true }
       - { id: B, text: b, correct: true }
+  - id: q-a-003
+    status: draft
+    level: 1
+    format: single_best_answer
+    stem: s
+    options:
+      - { id: o-key-one, text: a, correct: true }
+      - { id: o-key-two, text: b, correct: true }
+      - { id: o-wrong-one, text: c }
+      - { id: o-wrong-two, text: d }
 "#,
         );
         let issues = b.validate(None);
+        // No key at all is still a bank problem: nothing can be drawn from it.
         assert!(
             issues
                 .iter()
-                .any(|i| i.contains("exactly one keyed option"))
+                .any(|i| i.starts_with("q-a-001") && i.contains("at least one keyed option")),
+            "{issues:?}"
         );
-        assert_eq!(
+        // Keying every option is still a bank problem, for the older reason: a
+        // question with nothing to choose against asks nothing.
+        assert!(
             issues
                 .iter()
-                .filter(|i| i.contains("exactly one keyed option"))
-                .count(),
-            2
+                .any(|i| i.starts_with("q-a-002") && i.contains("asks nothing")),
+            "{issues:?}"
+        );
+        // Two defensible keys alongside real distractors is not a problem. It
+        // is the pool doing its job — it is what lets you test whether the
+        // wording of the key is what students are answering. Exactly one of
+        // them reaches a student, and that is checked against the placement
+        // that administers it, in `Catalog::validate_placement`.
+        assert!(
+            !issues.iter().any(|i| i.starts_with("q-a-003")
+                && (i.contains("keyed option") || i.contains("asks nothing"))),
+            "{issues:?}"
         );
     }
 
@@ -1027,27 +1036,6 @@ learning_targets:
         );
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn history_versions_must_increase() {
-        let b = bank(
-            r#"
-  - id: q-a-001
-    version: 2
-    status: draft
-    level: 1
-    stem: s
-    options:
-      - { id: A, text: a, correct: true }
-      - { id: B, text: b }
-    history:
-      - { version: 2, date: 2026-01-01, change: second }
-      - { version: 1, date: 2026-01-02, change: first }
-"#,
-        );
-        let issues = b.validate(None);
-        assert!(issues.iter().any(|i| i.contains("does not increase")));
-    }
-
     #[test]
     fn level_counts_exclude_drafts_and_bonuses() {
         let b = bank(

src/model/calibration.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,838 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Prosperity-3.0.0
+// Copyright Scientific Computing Studio
+// Source: https://git.scient.ing/education/coursebank
+
+//! Where the statistics live, which is not in the bank.
+//!
+//! A bank file is a reviewed artifact: someone wrote the question, someone
+//! argued about the distractors, and the diff on it should be a change of
+//! intent. Statistics are neither reviewed nor intended — they are what
+//! happened — and writing them back into the bank means every grading run
+//! produces a diff on a file whose history is supposed to be about wording.
+//!
+//! So the evidence lives in `analysis/`, in two kinds of file:
+//!
+//! | File | Format | Rewritten? | Holds |
+//! |:--|:--|:--|:--|
+//! | `analysis/administrations/<id>-items.csv` | CSV | never | one row per question |
+//! | `analysis/administrations/<id>-options.csv` | CSV | never | one row per question and option |
+//! | `analysis/calibration.yaml` | YAML | by `calibrate` | the pooled per-item view |
+//!
+//! The format follows the shape. An administration record is a table — fixed
+//! columns, one row per question, machine-written, never hand-edited — so it is
+//! CSV: one line per item rather than fifteen, which diffs better, and it loads
+//! straight into pandas or DuckDB, which is much of the point of committing it.
+//! The pooled view is not a table. It is three levels deep, item to variant to
+//! option history, with fitted parameters and variable-length lists, and as CSV
+//! that would be three files joined by keys — a relational schema for the one
+//! file a person actually reads in a pull request. That stays YAML.
+//!
+//! Neither is Parquet, and the reason is the review workflow: a binary file
+//! shows nothing in a diff and cannot be merged. Parquet is right for `data/`
+//! precisely because that is bulk, ignored, and never reviewed.
+//!
+//! An administration file is written once and not touched again, for the same
+//! reason a seal is not: it is a record of a thing that happened on a day. The
+//! calibration file is the accepted rollup — what `lint` compares your
+//! predictions against, and what a report reads — and `calibrate` proposes
+//! changes to it as a diff you review before committing.
+//!
+//! Both are meant to be committed. Neither can carry student data, and that is
+//! a property of the types rather than a promise: there is no field for a
+//! student key, an identifier, a section, or an ability estimate, and the
+//! structures reject unknown keys, so a file carrying one fails to load rather
+//! than being quietly accepted. Everything per-person stays in `data/`, which
+//! is what your `.gitignore` is for.
+//!
+//! # Linking back to the bank
+//!
+//! By item id, which since 2.0 names the item course-wide and has no file name
+//! in it, and by variant digest, which says which option set the numbers
+//! describe. A record also carries the stem digest it was measured against, so
+//! [`CalibrationFile::validate`] can say that an item has been reworded since —
+//! the statistics then describe a question that no longer exists under that id.
+
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use crate::course::SCHEMA_VERSION;
+use crate::date::Date;
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::item::{Calibration, IrtModel, IrtParams, OptionStat};
+use crate::taxonomy::Flag;
+use crate::yaml;
+
+/// The file name of the pooled calibration store, under `analysis/`.
+pub const CALIBRATION_FILE: &str = "calibration.yaml";
+
+/// The pooled per-item statistics: `analysis/calibration.yaml`.
+///
+/// Keyed by item id. This is the file `calibrate` rewrites and the one
+/// everything else reads; [`crate::catalog::Catalog::load`] fills each item's
+/// in-memory calibration from it, so nothing downstream has to know where the
+/// numbers came from.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct CalibrationFile {
+    /// Schema version.
+    #[serde(
+        default = "default_version",
+        deserialize_with = "yaml::flexible_string"
+    )]
+    pub schema_version: String,
+
+    /// One entry per calibrated item, by item id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub items: BTreeMap<String, Calibration>,
+}
+
+impl CalibrationFile {
+    /// Loads the store, or an empty one when the file does not exist yet.
+    ///
+    /// Absence is not an error: a course that has not graded anything has no
+    /// statistics, and every command that reads them has to work anyway.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - the file, usually `analysis/calibration.yaml`.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The store.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Yaml`] when the file exists and does not parse.
+    pub fn load(path: &Path) -> Result<CalibrationFile> {
+        if !path.is_file() {
+            return Ok(CalibrationFile::default());
+        }
+        yaml::read(path)
+    }
+
+    /// Writes the store.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - the destination.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Io`] on a write failure.
+    pub fn save(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+        yaml::write(path, self)
+    }
+
+    /// The calibration recorded for one item.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `item` - the item id.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The record, or `None` when the item has never been calibrated.
+    pub fn get(&self, item: &str) -> Option<&Calibration> {
+        self.items.get(item)
+    }
+
+    /// Checks the store against the bank it describes.
+    ///
+    /// The checks that matter for a file kept apart from what it refers to: a
+    /// record for an item that no longer exists, an option id the item does not
+    /// have, and — the one worth having — statistics measured against a stem
+    /// that has since been reworded, which since 2.0 means they describe a
+    /// different question wearing the same id.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `catalog` - the loaded course.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// One message per problem, empty when the store agrees with the bank.
+    pub fn validate(&self, catalog: &crate::catalog::Catalog) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut issues = Vec::new();
+
+        for (id, calibration) in &self.items {
+            let Some(entry) = catalog.get(id) else {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "calibration for `{id}`: no such item. Statistics outlive an item only if \
+                     it is retired, not deleted — a retired item keeps its id so its numbers \
+                     still mean something."
+                ));
+                continue;
+            };
+            let item = &entry.item;
+
+            for variant in &calibration.variants {
+                for option in variant.option_stats.keys() {
+                    if item.option(option).is_none() {
+                        issues.push(format!(
+                            "calibration for `{id}`: variant `{}` has statistics for `{option}`, \
+                             which is not an option of this item",
+                            short(&variant.variant)
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+                if !variant.key.is_empty()
+                    && variant.variant != item.variant_digest(&variant.key, &variant.distractors)
+                {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "calibration for `{id}`: variant `{}` was measured against an option set \
+                         that has since been reworded, so its numbers describe wording no \
+                         student now sees",
+                        short(&variant.variant)
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            for option in calibration.options.keys() {
+                if item.option(option).is_none() {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "calibration for `{id}`: an option history names `{option}`, which is \
+                         not an option of this item"
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        issues
+    }
+}
+
+/// What one administration measured: `analysis/administrations/<id>.yaml`.
+///
+/// Written once, when the exam is analyzed, and never rewritten. It is the
+/// audit trail under [`CalibrationFile`]: the pooled numbers say an item sits
+/// at 0.63, and these say which exams that came from and what each one saw.
+/// Keeping them also means the history survives losing `data/`, which is
+/// ignored by git and rotates.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct MeasurementFile {
+    /// Schema version.
+    #[serde(
+        default = "default_version",
+        deserialize_with = "yaml::flexible_string"
+    )]
+    pub schema_version: String,
+
+    /// What was administered, and how it was analyzed.
+    pub administration: MeasurementMeta,
+
+    /// One entry per question, in the order it was printed.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub items: Vec<Measurement>,
+}
+
+/// What an administration was, for a reader two years later.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct MeasurementMeta {
+    /// The administration id these numbers came from.
+    pub id: String,
+    /// The assessment that was administered.
+    pub assessment: String,
+    /// The term.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub term: Option<String>,
+    /// The date it was given.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub date: Option<Date>,
+    /// The forms in play.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub forms: Vec<String>,
+    /// How many examinees the numbers pool over.
+    ///
+    /// The one number to read before any of the others. A point-biserial on
+    /// twenty-seven students is a different kind of claim than one on three
+    /// hundred, and nothing below records how thin it is.
+    pub n_examinees: usize,
+    /// The item response model fitted, when one was.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub model: Option<IrtModel>,
+    /// When the analysis was run.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub generated: Option<Date>,
+    /// The version of the tool that ran it, since the numbers depend on it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub coursebank: Option<String>,
+}
+
+/// One question's statistics from one administration.
+///
+/// Cohort aggregates only. There is deliberately no per-section or per-form
+/// breakdown: those get small, and a small cell crossed with anything else is
+/// how an aggregate stops being one.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct Measurement {
+    /// The item id.
+    pub item: String,
+    /// The question number it was printed as.
+    pub number: u32,
+    /// The option set administered. See [`crate::item::Item::variant_digest`].
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub variant: Option<String>,
+    /// The stem as administered. See [`crate::item::Item::stem_digest`].
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub stem_digest: Option<String>,
+    /// Examinees who saw it.
+    pub n: usize,
+    /// Proportion correct.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub p_value: Option<f64>,
+    /// Corrected item-total point-biserial correlation.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub point_biserial: Option<f64>,
+    /// Upper-minus-lower-group discrimination index.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub discrimination_index: Option<f64>,
+    /// The option ids keyed correct, so a row in the options file says whether
+    /// it describes the answer or a distractor without a join.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub key: Vec<String>,
+    /// Per-option behaviour, by option id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub option_stats: BTreeMap<String, OptionStat>,
+    /// Fitted parameters, when the sample supported a fit.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub irt: Option<IrtParams>,
+    /// Machine-detected problems with this question on this administration.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub flags: Vec<Flag>,
+}
+
+/// The columns of an items file, and the only ones accepted on read.
+///
+/// An allowlist rather than a type-level guarantee. In YAML the structures
+/// reject unknown keys, so a file carrying a student column could not be
+/// loaded; CSV readers are tolerant of extra columns, so the same assurance has
+/// to be an explicit check. This is it, and [`MeasurementFile::read_csv`]
+/// refuses any header not named here.
+pub const ITEM_COLUMNS: [&str; 16] = [
+    "administration_id",
+    "assessment",
+    "term",
+    "date",
+    "forms",
+    "n_examinees",
+    "coursebank",
+    "generated",
+    "item",
+    "number",
+    "variant",
+    "stem_digest",
+    "n",
+    "p_value",
+    "point_biserial",
+    "discrimination_index",
+];
+
+/// The columns of an options file, and the only ones accepted on read.
+pub const OPTION_COLUMNS: [&str; 9] = [
+    "administration_id",
+    "item",
+    "number",
+    "option",
+    "keyed",
+    "selection_rate",
+    "point_biserial",
+    "upper_group_rate",
+    "lower_group_rate",
+];
+
+/// One row of an items file.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct ItemRow {
+    administration_id: String,
+    assessment: String,
+    term: String,
+    date: String,
+    forms: String,
+    n_examinees: usize,
+    coursebank: String,
+    generated: String,
+    item: String,
+    number: u32,
+    variant: String,
+    stem_digest: String,
+    n: usize,
+    p_value: String,
+    point_biserial: String,
+    discrimination_index: String,
+}
+
+/// One row of an options file.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct OptionRow {
+    administration_id: String,
+    item: String,
+    number: u32,
+    option: String,
+    keyed: bool,
+    selection_rate: String,
+    point_biserial: String,
+    upper_group_rate: String,
+    lower_group_rate: String,
+}
+
+impl MeasurementFile {
+    /// The two file names this administration writes, items first.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `dir` - usually `analysis/administrations`.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The items path and the options path.
+    pub fn paths(&self, dir: &Path) -> (PathBuf, PathBuf) {
+        let stem = crate::course::slugify(&self.administration.id);
+        (
+            dir.join(format!("{stem}-items.csv")),
+            dir.join(format!("{stem}-options.csv")),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// Writes the two files, refusing to overwrite either.
+    ///
+    /// An administration is a thing that happened once, so replacing its record
+    /// is a deliberate act: delete the files first if you mean to re-analyze.
+    ///
+    /// Two files rather than one because the data is two shapes — one row per
+    /// question, one row per question and option — and a single sparse table
+    /// serves neither. The administration's metadata repeats on every row,
+    /// which is what makes each file independently loadable and is the same
+    /// convention the response store already uses.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `dir` - the directory to write into.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The paths written.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Usage`] when either file exists, and [`Error::Io`] or
+    /// [`Error::Csv`] on a write failure.
+    pub fn write_csv(&self, dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<PathBuf>> {
+        let (items_path, options_path) = self.paths(dir);
+        for path in [&items_path, &options_path] {
+            if path.exists() {
+                return Err(Error::usage(format!(
+                    "{} already records this administration. It happened once, so replacing it \
+                     is a deliberate act: delete it first if you mean to re-analyze.",
+                    path.display()
+                )));
+            }
+        }
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(dir).map_err(|e| Error::io(dir, e))?;
+
+        let meta = &self.administration;
+        let mut items = csv::Writer::from_path(&items_path).map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+            path: items_path.clone(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+        let mut options = csv::Writer::from_path(&options_path).map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+            path: options_path.clone(),
+            source: e,
+        })?;
+
+        for measurement in &self.items {
+            items
+                .serialize(ItemRow {
+                    administration_id: meta.id.clone(),
+                    assessment: meta.assessment.clone(),
+                    term: meta.term.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    date: meta.date.map(|d| d.to_string()).unwrap_or_default(),
+                    forms: meta.forms.join(";"),
+                    n_examinees: meta.n_examinees,
+                    coursebank: meta.coursebank.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    generated: meta.generated.map(|d| d.to_string()).unwrap_or_default(),
+                    item: measurement.item.clone(),
+                    number: measurement.number,
+                    variant: measurement.variant.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    stem_digest: measurement.stem_digest.clone().unwrap_or_default(),
+                    n: measurement.n,
+                    p_value: number(measurement.p_value),
+                    point_biserial: number(measurement.point_biserial),
+                    discrimination_index: number(measurement.discrimination_index),
+                })
+                .map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                    path: items_path.clone(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+
+            for (option, stat) in &measurement.option_stats {
+                options
+                    .serialize(OptionRow {
+                        administration_id: meta.id.clone(),
+                        item: measurement.item.clone(),
+                        number: measurement.number,
+                        option: option.clone(),
+                        keyed: measurement.key.iter().any(|k| k == option),
+                        selection_rate: number(stat.selection_rate),
+                        point_biserial: number(stat.point_biserial),
+                        upper_group_rate: number(stat.upper_group_rate),
+                        lower_group_rate: number(stat.lower_group_rate),
+                    })
+                    .map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                        path: options_path.clone(),
+                        source: e,
+                    })?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        items.flush().map_err(|e| Error::io(&items_path, e))?;
+        options.flush().map_err(|e| Error::io(&options_path, e))?;
+        Ok(vec![items_path, options_path])
+    }
+
+    /// Reads one administration back from its two files.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `items_path` - the items file. The options file is found beside it.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The administration, with its per-option statistics reattached.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Csv`] on a parse failure and [`Error::Invalid`] when a
+    /// file carries a column that is not in [`ITEM_COLUMNS`] or
+    /// [`OPTION_COLUMNS`] — which is how a student column is caught.
+    pub fn read_csv(items_path: &Path) -> Result<MeasurementFile> {
+        let options_path = PathBuf::from(
+            items_path
+                .to_string_lossy()
+                .replace("-items.csv", "-options.csv"),
+        );
+
+        let mut reader = open_csv(items_path, &ITEM_COLUMNS)?;
+        let mut meta = MeasurementMeta::default();
+        let mut items: Vec<Measurement> = Vec::new();
+        for row in reader.deserialize::<ItemRow>() {
+            let row = row.map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                path: items_path.to_path_buf(),
+                source: e,
+            })?;
+            meta = MeasurementMeta {
+                id: row.administration_id.clone(),
+                assessment: row.assessment.clone(),
+                term: some(&row.term),
+                date: parse_date(&row.date),
+                forms: row
+                    .forms
+                    .split(';')
+                    .filter(|f| !f.is_empty())
+                    .map(str::to_string)
+                    .collect(),
+                n_examinees: row.n_examinees,
+                model: meta.model,
+                generated: parse_date(&row.generated),
+                coursebank: some(&row.coursebank),
+            };
+            items.push(Measurement {
+                item: row.item,
+                number: row.number,
+                variant: some(&row.variant),
+                stem_digest: some(&row.stem_digest),
+                n: row.n,
+                p_value: parse(&row.p_value),
+                point_biserial: parse(&row.point_biserial),
+                discrimination_index: parse(&row.discrimination_index),
+                ..Measurement::default()
+            });
+        }
+
+        if options_path.is_file() {
+            let mut reader = open_csv(&options_path, &OPTION_COLUMNS)?;
+            for row in reader.deserialize::<OptionRow>() {
+                let row = row.map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+                    path: options_path.clone(),
+                    source: e,
+                })?;
+                let Some(target) = items.iter_mut().find(|i| i.number == row.number) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                if row.keyed && !target.key.contains(&row.option) {
+                    target.key.push(row.option.clone());
+                }
+                target.option_stats.insert(
+                    row.option,
+                    OptionStat {
+                        selection_rate: parse(&row.selection_rate),
+                        point_biserial: parse(&row.point_biserial),
+                        upper_group_rate: parse(&row.upper_group_rate),
+                        lower_group_rate: parse(&row.lower_group_rate),
+                    },
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(MeasurementFile {
+            schema_version: default_version(),
+            administration: meta,
+            items,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Reads every administration under a directory, oldest first.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `dir` - usually `analysis/administrations`.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The administrations, empty when the directory does not exist.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Propagates read failures.
+    pub fn load_all(dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<MeasurementFile>> {
+        if !dir.is_dir() {
+            return Ok(Vec::new());
+        }
+        let mut paths: Vec<PathBuf> = std::fs::read_dir(dir)
+            .map_err(|e| Error::io(dir, e))?
+            .filter_map(|e| e.ok().map(|e| e.path()))
+            .filter(|p| p.to_string_lossy().ends_with("-items.csv"))
+            .collect();
+        paths.sort();
+
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        for path in &paths {
+            out.push(MeasurementFile::read_csv(path)?);
+        }
+        out.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            a.administration
+                .date
+                .cmp(&b.administration.date)
+                .then(a.administration.id.cmp(&b.administration.id))
+        });
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Opens a CSV and refuses any column that is not on the allowlist.
+fn open_csv(path: &Path, allowed: &[&str]) -> Result<csv::Reader<std::fs::File>> {
+    let mut reader = csv::Reader::from_path(path).map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+        path: path.to_path_buf(),
+        source: e,
+    })?;
+    let headers = reader
+        .headers()
+        .map_err(|e| Error::Csv {
+            path: path.to_path_buf(),
+            source: e,
+        })?
+        .clone();
+
+    let unexpected: Vec<&str> = headers.iter().filter(|h| !allowed.contains(h)).collect();
+    if !unexpected.is_empty() {
+        return Err(Error::Invalid(vec![format!(
+            "{}: unexpected column(s) {}. These files are committed, so they hold cohort \
+             aggregates and nothing else — anything per-student belongs in data/, which is \
+             ignored.",
+            path.display(),
+            unexpected.join(", ")
+        )]));
+    }
+    Ok(reader)
+}
+
+/// A float as a CSV cell, empty when absent.
+fn number(value: Option<f64>) -> String {
+    value.map(|v| format!("{v}")).unwrap_or_default()
+}
+
+/// A CSV cell as a float, absent when empty or unparseable.
+fn parse(cell: &str) -> Option<f64> {
+    cell.trim().parse().ok()
+}
+
+/// A CSV cell as a string, absent when empty.
+fn some(cell: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    (!cell.trim().is_empty()).then(|| cell.trim().to_string())
+}
+
+/// A CSV cell as a date, absent when empty or unparseable.
+fn parse_date(cell: &str) -> Option<Date> {
+    some(cell).and_then(|c| c.parse().ok())
+}
+
+/// The schema version new files are written with.
+fn default_version() -> String {
+    SCHEMA_VERSION.to_string()
+}
+
+/// A digest shortened for a message.
+fn short(digest: &str) -> String {
+    digest.chars().take(8).collect()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::item::VariantCalibration;
+
+    fn tmp(tag: &str) -> std::path::PathBuf {
+        let p = std::env::temp_dir().join(format!("coursebank-cal-{tag}-{}", std::process::id()));
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&p);
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&p).unwrap();
+        p
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_absent_store_is_empty_rather_than_an_error() {
+        let dir = tmp("absent");
+        let store = CalibrationFile::load(&dir.join(CALIBRATION_FILE)).unwrap();
+        assert!(store.items.is_empty());
+        assert!(store.get("q-x").is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn the_store_round_trips() {
+        let dir = tmp("round");
+        let path = dir.join(CALIBRATION_FILE);
+
+        let mut store = CalibrationFile::default();
+        store.items.insert(
+            "q-x".to_string(),
+            Calibration {
+                n_examinees: Some(27),
+                p_value: Some(0.63),
+                variants: vec![VariantCalibration {
+                    variant: "4c81fa".into(),
+                    n_examinees: Some(27),
+                    ..VariantCalibration::default()
+                }],
+                ..Calibration::default()
+            },
+        );
+        store.save(&path).unwrap();
+
+        let back = CalibrationFile::load(&path).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.get("q-x").unwrap().p_value, Some(0.63));
+        assert_eq!(back.get("q-x").unwrap().variants.len(), 1);
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_administration_round_trips_through_two_csvs() {
+        let dir = tmp("csv");
+        let file = MeasurementFile {
+            schema_version: default_version(),
+            administration: MeasurementMeta {
+                id: "e1-2026f".into(),
+                assessment: "e1".into(),
+                term: Some("2026f".into()),
+                date: Some(Date::new(2026, 9, 15).unwrap()),
+                forms: vec!["A".into(), "B".into()],
+                n_examinees: 27,
+                model: None,
+                generated: Some(Date::new(2026, 9, 27).unwrap()),
+                coursebank: Some("0.0.0".into()),
+            },
+            items: vec![Measurement {
+                item: "q-fastq-quality-length-match".into(),
+                number: 1,
+                variant: Some("237d62f9af222f78".into()),
+                stem_digest: Some("8b22e0".into()),
+                n: 27,
+                p_value: Some(0.5926),
+                point_biserial: Some(0.31),
+                discrimination_index: None,
+                key: vec!["o-fourth-line".into()],
+                option_stats: [
+                    (
+                        "o-fourth-line".to_string(),
+                        OptionStat {
+                            selection_rate: Some(0.5926),
+                            point_biserial: Some(0.31),
+                            upper_group_rate: None,
+                            lower_group_rate: None,
+                        },
+                    ),
+                    (
+                        "o-third-line".to_string(),
+                        OptionStat {
+                            selection_rate: Some(0.1852),
+                            point_biserial: Some(-0.18),
+                            upper_group_rate: None,
+                            lower_group_rate: None,
+                        },
+                    ),
+                ]
+                .into_iter()
+                .collect(),
+                irt: None,
+                flags: Vec::new(),
+            }],
+        };
+
+        let written = file.write_csv(&dir).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(written.len(), 2, "one table per shape");
+        assert!(written[0].ends_with("e1-2026f-items.csv"));
+        assert!(written[1].ends_with("e1-2026f-options.csv"));
+
+        // One line per question, loadable on its own: the administration's
+        // metadata repeats on the row, as the response store already does.
+        let items = std::fs::read_to_string(&written[0]).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            items.starts_with("administration_id,assessment,term,date,forms"),
+            "{items}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            items.contains("e1-2026f,e1,2026f,2026-09-15,A;B,27"),
+            "{items}"
+        );
+
+        let options = std::fs::read_to_string(&written[1]).unwrap();
+        assert!(options.contains("o-fourth-line,true"), "{options}");
+        assert!(options.contains("o-third-line,false"), "{options}");
+
+        let back = MeasurementFile::read_csv(&written[0]).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(back.administration.id, "e1-2026f");
+        assert_eq!(back.administration.n_examinees, 27);
+        assert_eq!(back.administration.forms, vec!["A", "B"]);
+        assert_eq!(back.items.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(back.items[0].p_value, Some(0.5926));
+        assert_eq!(back.items[0].key, vec!["o-fourth-line"]);
+        assert_eq!(back.items[0].option_stats.len(), 2);
+        assert_eq!(back.items[0].discrimination_index, None);
+
+        assert_eq!(MeasurementFile::load_all(&dir).unwrap().len(), 1);
+
+        // It happened once, so the record is not replaced by accident.
+        let err = file.write_csv(&dir).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err.contains("deliberate"), "{err}");
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_student_column_is_refused_on_read() {
+        let dir = tmp("identifiers");
+        let path = dir.join("e1-2026f-items.csv");
+        std::fs::write(
+            &path,
+            "administration_id,assessment,item,number,n,student_key\n             e1-2026f,e1,q-x,1,27,abc123\n",
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        // In YAML this fell out of the type, which rejects unknown keys. A CSV
+        // reader tolerates extra columns, so the same assurance has to be an
+        // explicit allowlist — and this is the test that it is one.
+        let err = MeasurementFile::read_csv(&path).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(err.contains("student_key"), "{err}");
+        assert!(err.contains("cohort aggregates"), "{err}");
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
+    }
+}

src/model/catalog.rs

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 //! Loading a whole course at once, and reporting on what it contains.
 //!
 //! A [`Catalog`] is every bank in a course, indexed so that an item can be found
-//! by its global id (`bank::item`), and so that questions like "how many Apply
+//! by its id, and so that questions like "how many Apply
 //! level items do I have on lecture 12" have a cheap answer.
 //!
 //! The global id is the join key for everything downstream: assessment records
@@ -20,19 +20,24 @@
 use std::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet};
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 
-use crate::assessment::AssessmentFile;
+use crate::assessment::{AssessmentFile, Placement};
 use crate::bank::BankFile;
 use crate::course::CourseFile;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::item::Item;
 use crate::layout::Layout;
-use crate::taxonomy::{Level, Status, Tier};
+use crate::taxonomy::{Format, Level, Status, Tier};
 use crate::yaml;
 
 /// One item plus everything needed to locate it again.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct Entry {
-    /// The globally unique id, `bank::item`.
+    /// The item's id, which names it course-wide.
+    ///
+    /// The bank is in [`Entry::bank`] and the file in [`Entry::path`], neither
+    /// of which is part of the identity: this is the join key that response
+    /// data carries, and a join key with a file name in it renames itself every
+    /// time the files are reorganized.
     pub uid: String,
     /// The bank id.
     pub bank: String,
@@ -70,6 +75,12 @@ pub struct Catalog {
     pub entries: Vec<Entry>,
     /// Bank metadata by bank id.
     pub banks: BTreeMap<String, crate::bank::BankMeta>,
+    /// The statistics, loaded from `analysis/` rather than from the banks.
+    ///
+    /// Each entry's [`crate::item::Item::calibration`] is filled from this at
+    /// load, so everything downstream reads one item and does not have to know
+    /// that the numbers and the wording come from different files.
+    pub calibration: crate::calibration::CalibrationFile,
     /// Map from global id to index into `entries`.
     index: BTreeMap<String, usize>,
 }
@@ -92,14 +103,17 @@ impl Catalog {
     /// id, since either makes the join key ambiguous.
     pub fn load(root: &Path) -> Result<Catalog> {
         let layout = Layout::new(root);
-        let course = CourseFile::load(&layout.course_file())?;
+        let course = CourseFile::load_dir(root)?;
         let mut catalog = Catalog {
             course,
             layout,
             entries: Vec::new(),
             banks: BTreeMap::new(),
             index: BTreeMap::new(),
+            calibration: crate::calibration::CalibrationFile::default(),
         };
+        catalog.calibration =
+            crate::calibration::CalibrationFile::load(&catalog.layout.calibration_file())?;
 
         let mut problems = Vec::new();
         let mut files = yaml::list_yaml(&catalog.layout.banks())?;
@@ -117,9 +131,13 @@ impl Catalog {
             }
             catalog.banks.insert(bank_id.clone(), bank.bank.clone());
             for (i, item) in bank.items.into_iter().enumerate() {
-                let uid = format!("{bank_id}::{}", item.id);
-                if catalog.index.contains_key(&uid) {
-                    problems.push(format!("duplicate global item id `{uid}`"));
+                let uid = item.id.clone();
+                if let Some(first) = catalog.index.get(&uid) {
+                    problems.push(format!(
+                        "item id `{uid}` is used twice: in bank `{}` and in bank `{bank_id}`. An \
+                         id names one question course-wide, because response data joins on it.",
+                        catalog.entries[*first].bank
+                    ));
                     continue;
                 }
                 catalog.index.insert(uid.clone(), catalog.entries.len());
@@ -136,20 +154,36 @@ impl Catalog {
         if !problems.is_empty() {
             return Err(Error::Invalid(problems));
         }
+        // Statistics are attached here rather than parsed from the bank, which
+        // is why an item can be read as one thing while its wording and its
+        // evidence live in files with different review cycles.
+        for entry in &mut catalog.entries {
+            if let Some(calibration) = catalog.calibration.items.get(&entry.uid) {
+                entry.item.calibration = Some(calibration.clone());
+            }
+        }
+
         Ok(catalog)
     }
 
     /// Looks up an item by global id.
     ///
+    /// A pre-2.0 `bank::item` id resolves to the item it used to name, so an
+    /// assessment record or a parquet file written before the change still
+    /// joins. See [`crate::item::canonical_id`].
+    ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `uid` - the global id, `bank::item`.
+    /// * `uid` - the item id, in either form.
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// The entry, or `None`.
     pub fn get(&self, uid: &str) -> Option<&Entry> {
-        self.index.get(uid).map(|i| &self.entries[*i])
+        self.index
+            .get(uid)
+            .or_else(|| self.index.get(crate::item::canonical_id(uid)))
+            .map(|i| &self.entries[*i])
     }
 
     /// Looks up an item by global id, erroring when absent.
@@ -173,45 +207,37 @@ impl Catalog {
         })
     }
 
-    /// Resolves a possibly-unqualified id to a global id.
+    /// Resolves an id written in either form to the canonical one.
     ///
-    /// Typing `q-mm-kinetics-001` on the command line should work when that id is
-    /// unambiguous across the course, because remembering which bank a question
-    /// lives in is exactly the sort of bookkeeping this tool exists to remove.
+    /// Since 2.0 an item id is already course-wide, so this is the identity for
+    /// anything current. What it is still for is the old `bank::item` form,
+    /// which appears in assessment records, seals, and response files written
+    /// before the change, and which a person may well still type.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `id` - a global id, or a bare item id.
+    /// * `id` - an item id, in either form.
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// The global id.
+    /// The canonical id.
     ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Returns [`Error::Unresolved`] when nothing matches, or [`Error::Usage`]
-    /// when a bare id matches items in more than one bank.
+    /// Returns [`Error::Unresolved`] when nothing matches.
     pub fn resolve(&self, id: &str) -> Result<String> {
         if self.index.contains_key(id) {
             return Ok(id.to_string());
         }
-        let matches: Vec<&Entry> = self.entries.iter().filter(|e| e.item.id == id).collect();
-        match matches.len() {
-            0 => Err(Error::Unresolved {
-                kind: "item",
-                id: id.to_string(),
-                context: None,
-            }),
-            1 => Ok(matches[0].uid.clone()),
-            _ => Err(Error::usage(format!(
-                "`{id}` is ambiguous; it exists in {}. Use the full `bank::item` form.",
-                matches
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|e| e.bank.as_str())
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-                    .join(", ")
-            ))),
+        let canonical = crate::item::canonical_id(id);
+        if self.index.contains_key(canonical) {
+            return Ok(canonical.to_string());
         }
+        Err(Error::Unresolved {
+            kind: "item",
+            id: id.to_string(),
+            context: None,
+        })
     }
 
     /// Every item that may be placed on a graded assessment.
@@ -232,12 +258,10 @@ impl Catalog {
     ///
     /// Problems, prefixed with the file they came from.
     pub fn validate(&self) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
-        let mut issues: Vec<String> = self
-            .course
-            .validate()
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|m| format!("course.yaml: {m}"))
-            .collect();
+        // Not prefixed here: `CourseFile::validate` attributes each message to
+        // the fragment that defined the id, which for an unsplit course is
+        // `course.yaml` and for a split one is the file worth opening.
+        let mut issues: Vec<String> = self.course.validate();
 
         for path in yaml::list_yaml(&self.layout.banks())? {
             let bank = BankFile::load_resolved(&path)?;
@@ -255,6 +279,154 @@ impl Catalog {
         Ok(issues)
     }
 
+    /// Checks one placement's option set against the item's pool.
+    ///
+    /// The checks that moved here from the bank when options became a pool. A
+    /// bank holding two defensible keys and six distractors is sound; what has
+    /// to hold for a *form* is that exactly one key reached the student, that
+    /// none of the distractors was true, and that the count matches policy.
+    /// None of that can be decided by looking at the item alone.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `p` - the placement.
+    /// * `item` - the item it names.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// One message per problem.
+    fn validate_placement(&self, p: &Placement, item: &Item) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut issues = Vec::new();
+        if !item.format.has_options() {
+            return issues;
+        }
+        let at = |number: u32| format!("question {number} ({})", p.item);
+
+        for id in p.key.iter().chain(p.distractors.iter()) {
+            if item.option(id).is_none() {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: `{id}` is not an option of this item",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        for id in &p.distractors {
+            if p.key.iter().any(|k| k == id) {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: `{id}` is listed as both the key and a distractor",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+            if item.option(id).is_some_and(|o| o.correct) {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: `{id}` is offered as a distractor but the bank keys it correct",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        for id in &p.key {
+            if item.option(id).is_some_and(|o| !o.correct) {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: `{id}` is keyed correct here but the bank does not key it. An option is \
+                     true or it is not; which true option a form uses is this record's choice, \
+                     but not whether it is true.",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        let single = item.format == Format::SingleBestAnswer;
+        if single && p.key.len() > 1 {
+            issues.push(format!(
+                "{}: single_best_answer administers exactly one key, this names {}",
+                at(p.number),
+                p.key.len()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        // No distractor list means the whole pool, which is what a pre-2.0
+        // record means and what an item whose pool is its form still means.
+        // The record still has to say which key, when the pool offers a choice.
+        if p.distractors.is_empty() {
+            let (keys, _) = item.pool();
+            if p.key.is_empty() && keys.len() > 1 && single {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: the item offers {} defensible keys, so the record has to say which one \
+                     this assessment used",
+                    at(p.number),
+                    keys.len()
+                ));
+            }
+        } else {
+            let shown = item.administered(&p.key, &p.distractors);
+            let expected = self.course.policy.options_per_item;
+            if shown.len() != expected {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: administers {} option(s), but course policy is {expected} per item",
+                    at(p.number),
+                    shown.len()
+                ));
+            }
+            if single && p.key.is_empty() {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: names its distractors but not its key, so what was marked correct is \
+                     left to whatever the bank says today",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(recorded) = &p.variant {
+            if *recorded != item.variant_digest(&p.key, &p.distractors) {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: an administered option has been reworded since this assessment. \
+                     Statistics pooled under this variant describe the older wording.",
+                    at(p.number)
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        issues
+    }
+
+    /// Checks every sealed administration's stems against the bank.
+    ///
+    /// The seal is the authority on what was administered, so this is the
+    /// comparison that matters: a record can be edited, but a seal is written
+    /// before the exam is printed and digested against tampering. A stem that
+    /// no longer matches the one a cohort answered means the id now names a
+    /// different question, and every statistic pooled under it is describing
+    /// two things at once.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `seals` - the sealed administrations to check.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// One message per stem that has moved out from under its seal.
+    pub fn validate_seals(&self, seals: &[crate::seal::SealFile]) -> Vec<String> {
+        let mut issues = Vec::new();
+        for seal in seals {
+            for item in &seal.items {
+                let Some(digest) = &item.stem_digest else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let Some(entry) = self.get(&item.item) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                if *digest != entry.item.stem_digest() {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "{}: question {} (`{}`) was administered with a different stem than the \
+                         bank now holds. Statistics from that administration describe the older \
+                         wording; give the new wording its own id.",
+                        seal.seal.assessment, item.number, item.item
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        issues
+    }
+
     /// Validates a record's internal invariants, then its references against this
     /// catalog: unknown items, keys that drifted, and fingerprints showing the
     /// item was reworded since it was administered.
@@ -264,6 +436,22 @@ impl Catalog {
             match self.get(&p.item) {
                 None => issues.push(format!("question {}: unknown item `{}`", p.number, p.item)),
                 Some(entry) => {
+                    // The rule the stem digest exists to enforce. A changed
+                    // fingerprint is a note: the statistics describe an older
+                    // wording. A changed stem is an error: whatever was
+                    // administered is not the question the bank now holds, so
+                    // the id is being reused for two different questions.
+                    if let Some(digest) = &p.stem_digest {
+                        if *digest != entry.item.stem_digest() {
+                            issues.push(format!(
+                                "question {} ({}): the stem has been reworded since this \
+                                 assessment. A reworded stem is a new question: give the new \
+                                 wording a new id with `supersedes: {}`, and leave this one as \
+                                 it was administered.",
+                                p.number, p.item, p.item
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
                     if let Some(fp) = &p.fingerprint {
                         if *fp != entry.item.fingerprint() {
                             issues.push(format!(
@@ -273,11 +461,7 @@ impl Catalog {
                             ));
                         }
                     }
-                    if !p.key.is_empty() && p.key != entry.item.key_letters() {
-                        issues.push(format!(
-                            "question {} ({}): the recorded key {:?} differs from the item's current key {:?}",
-                            p.number, p.item, p.key, entry.item.key_letters()));
-                    }
+                    issues.extend(self.validate_placement(p, &entry.item));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -705,13 +889,32 @@ items:
 
         let cat = Catalog::load(&dir).expect("catalog loads");
         assert_eq!(cat.entries.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(cat.entries[0].uid, "b1::q-x-001");
+        // The id names the item course-wide; the bank is where it is kept.
+        assert_eq!(cat.entries[0].uid, "q-x-001");
+        assert_eq!(cat.entries[0].bank, "b1");
+        assert!(cat.get("q-x-001").is_some());
+        assert_eq!(cat.resolve("q-x-001").unwrap(), "q-x-001");
+        // A record or a parquet file written before 2.0 still joins.
         assert!(cat.get("b1::q-x-001").is_some());
-        assert_eq!(cat.resolve("q-x-001").unwrap(), "b1::q-x-001");
+        assert_eq!(cat.resolve("b1::q-x-001").unwrap(), "q-x-001");
+        assert!(cat.get("b1::q-nonexistent").is_none());
         assert!(cat.validate().unwrap().is_empty());
         let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn one_item_id_in_two_banks_is_fatal() {
+        let dir = tmp("dupitem");
+        write_course(&dir, "");
+        write_bank(&dir, "b1.yaml", APPROVED);
+        write_bank(&dir, "b2.yaml", &APPROVED.replace("id: b1", "id: b2"));
+
+        let message = Catalog::load(&dir).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("`q-x-001` is used twice"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("course-wide"), "{message}");
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn duplicate_bank_ids_are_fatal() {
         let dir = tmp("dupbank");
@@ -723,21 +926,6 @@ items:
         let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
     }
 
-    #[test]
-    fn ambiguous_bare_ids_are_rejected() {
-        let dir = tmp("ambig");
-        write_course(&dir, "");
-        write_bank(&dir, "a.yaml", APPROVED);
-        write_bank(&dir, "b.yaml", &APPROVED.replace("id: b1", "id: b2"));
-        let cat = Catalog::load(&dir).expect("distinct banks load");
-        assert_eq!(cat.entries.len(), 2);
-        let err = cat.resolve("q-x-001").expect_err("bare id is ambiguous");
-        assert!(format!("{err}").contains("ambiguous"));
-        // The fully qualified form still works.
-        assert_eq!(cat.resolve("b2::q-x-001").unwrap(), "b2::q-x-001");
-        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir);
-    }
-
     #[test]
     fn coverage_finds_real_gaps() {
         let dir = tmp("coverage");

src/model/course.rs

@@ -4,20 +4,29 @@
 
 //! The course file: identity plus the registries every bank references.
 //!
-//! Learning objectives, their learning targets, and lectures are declared once,
-//! in `course.yaml`, and referenced by id from items. That is the single most load-bearing decision in
+//! Learning objectives, their learning targets, and lectures are declared once
+//! and referenced by id from items. That is the single most load-bearing decision in
 //! the schema. It means an objective's wording lives in exactly one place, so
 //! rewording it updates every report; it means a report can name what a student
 //! missed by objective rather than by question number; and it means a dangling
 //! reference is a hard error instead of a silently misspelled string that splits
 //! your coverage table into two near-identical rows.
 //!
+//! "Once" is a claim about ids, not about files. [`CourseFile`] is the resolved
+//! model, and it may be assembled from a directory of fragments — one file per
+//! lecture, one per objective — as well as from a single `course.yaml`. Either
+//! way an id has exactly one definition site, and [`CourseFile::origins`]
+//! records which file that was. See [`fragment`] for the merge and the rules
+//! that keep it honest.
+//!
 //! The course file also declares the term. Items live across terms, so the term
 //! belongs to the course and the administration, never to the item.
 
+pub mod fragment;
+
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
 use std::fmt;
-use std::path::Path;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 
 use serde::de::{self, MapAccess, Visitor};
 use serde::ser::SerializeMap;
@@ -28,8 +37,19 @@ use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 use crate::taxonomy::Level;
 use crate::yaml;
 
+use fragment::Section;
+
 /// The schema version this build of the tool writes.
-pub const SCHEMA_VERSION: &str = "1.0";
+pub const SCHEMA_VERSION: &str = "2.0";
+
+/// The schema major versions this build can read.
+///
+/// A 1.0 repository loads unchanged. What 2.0 changes is the shape of two
+/// things, and both are tolerated on the way in: a course file may be split
+/// into fragments, and an item is named course-wide rather than as
+/// `bank::item`. `coursebank migrate` rewrites files into the 2.0 form when you
+/// are ready; nothing forces it.
+pub const SUPPORTED_MAJORS: [&str; 2] = ["1", "2"];
 
 /// The canonical file name inside a course directory.
 pub const COURSE_FILE: &str = "course.yaml";
@@ -91,6 +111,16 @@ pub struct CourseFile {
     /// Shared stimuli for case-based testlets, keyed by id.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
     pub stimuli: BTreeMap<String, Stimulus>,
+
+    /// Which file defined each id, relative to the course root.
+    ///
+    /// Populated by [`fragment::assemble`] and empty for a course parsed
+    /// straight out of one file by [`CourseFile::load`]. It is what makes a
+    /// validation message able to name the file to open, which matters rather a
+    /// lot once one course is forty files. Not serialized: it describes where
+    /// the model came from, not what it says.
+    #[serde(skip)]
+    pub origins: BTreeMap<(Section, String), PathBuf>,
 }
 
 /// Course identity.
@@ -285,6 +315,15 @@ pub struct Lecture {
     /// Where the slides live, for study guidance in student reports.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub slides_url: Option<String>,
+    /// The objectives this session develops.
+    ///
+    /// The registration direction: you write what a lecture covers while
+    /// planning the lecture, and each named objective gains this lecture in its
+    /// [`Objective::lectures`] list during [`fragment::assemble`]. Declaring the
+    /// pair from the objective's side instead is equivalent, and declaring it
+    /// from both is redundant rather than contradictory — the two are unioned.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub teaches: Vec<String>,
     /// Assigned readings for the session, in the order you assign them.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
     pub readings: Vec<Reading>,
@@ -335,8 +374,21 @@ pub struct Reference {
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub pages: Option<String>,
     /// DOI, bare: `10.1038/nature12373`.
+    ///
+    /// For a manuscript this is usually the only link worth storing: it is the
+    /// identifier of the work rather than of one copy of it, and [`Reference::href`]
+    /// turns it into a URL.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub doi: Option<String>,
+    /// arXiv id, bare: `2301.00001` or `q-bio/0501001`.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub arxiv: Option<String>,
+    /// PubMed Central id, which hosts the full text: `PMC3084216`.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub pmcid: Option<String>,
+    /// PubMed id, which hosts a record about the work: `21471563`.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub pmid: Option<String>,
     /// ISBN, for a book.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub isbn: Option<String>,
@@ -353,6 +405,123 @@ pub struct Reference {
     pub note: Option<String>,
 }
 
+impl Reference {
+    /// Where to send a reader, most specific first.
+    ///
+    /// The one link resolution in the crate. Every exporter used to carry its
+    /// own copy of the `base_url` join, which meant a reading list, a printed
+    /// key, a practice sheet, and a student report could disagree about where a
+    /// citation points — and that none of them linked a journal article, since
+    /// an article has no `base_url` to join a path to.
+    ///
+    /// The order is from the exact location outward: a link to §1.4 beats a link
+    /// to the work, and a link to the work beats nothing.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `url` - a full URL for the exact location, from a reading or citation.
+    /// * `path` - a location under this work's `base_url`.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The most specific link available, or `None` for a work with no online
+    /// location at all.
+    pub fn href(&self, url: Option<&str>, path: Option<&str>) -> Option<String> {
+        if let Some(url) = url {
+            return Some(url.to_string());
+        }
+        if let (Some(base), Some(path)) = (self.base_url.as_deref(), path) {
+            return Some(join_url(base, path));
+        }
+        if let Some(url) = &self.url {
+            return Some(url.clone());
+        }
+        self.identifier_url()
+    }
+
+    /// The link this work's identifiers resolve to, ignoring any location inside
+    /// it.
+    ///
+    /// DOI first, because it names the work rather than one copy of it. Then
+    /// arXiv and PubMed Central, which host the article itself, before PubMed,
+    /// which hosts a record about it.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// A URL, or `None` when the work carries no identifier.
+    pub fn identifier_url(&self) -> Option<String> {
+        if let Some(doi) = self.doi.as_deref().map(bare_doi) {
+            return Some(format!("https://doi.org/{doi}"));
+        }
+        if let Some(id) = self.arxiv.as_deref().map(bare_arxiv) {
+            return Some(format!("https://arxiv.org/abs/{id}"));
+        }
+        if let Some(id) = self.pmcid.as_deref().map(str::trim) {
+            let id = if id.starts_with("PMC") {
+                id.to_string()
+            } else {
+                format!("PMC{id}")
+            };
+            return Some(format!("https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/{id}/"));
+        }
+        if let Some(id) = self.pmid.as_deref().map(str::trim) {
+            return Some(format!("https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/{id}/"));
+        }
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// The short form a reading list shows: the label, or the citation key.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `key` - the citation key, used when the work declares no label.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The label to print.
+    pub fn label_or<'a>(&'a self, key: &'a str) -> &'a str {
+        self.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A DOI with any resolver prefix stripped, so `href` cannot produce
+/// `https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10...`.
+fn bare_doi(doi: &str) -> &str {
+    let doi = doi.trim();
+    for prefix in [
+        "https://doi.org/",
+        "http://doi.org/",
+        "https://dx.doi.org/",
+        "http://dx.doi.org/",
+        "doi:",
+    ] {
+        if let Some(rest) = doi.strip_prefix(prefix) {
+            return rest;
+        }
+    }
+    doi
+}
+
+/// An arXiv id with the `arXiv:` prefix stripped.
+fn bare_arxiv(id: &str) -> &str {
+    let id = id.trim();
+    for prefix in ["arXiv:", "arxiv:", "https://arxiv.org/abs/"] {
+        if let Some(rest) = id.strip_prefix(prefix) {
+            return rest;
+        }
+    }
+    id
+}
+
+/// Joins a base URL and a path without doubling or dropping the separator.
+fn join_url(base: &str, path: &str) -> String {
+    match (base.ends_with('/'), path.starts_with('/')) {
+        (true, true) => format!("{base}{}", &path[1..]),
+        (false, false) => format!("{base}/{path}"),
+        _ => format!("{base}{path}"),
+    }
+}
+
 /// The kind of work, chosen to map onto BibTeX entry types.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
@@ -447,19 +616,10 @@ impl Reading {
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// `url` when given, otherwise the reference's `base_url` joined with `path`,
-    /// otherwise `None`.
+    /// The most specific link available, which for a manuscript with a DOI and
+    /// no `path` is the DOI. See [`Reference::href`].
     pub fn resolve_url(&self, reference: &Reference) -> Option<String> {
-        if let Some(url) = &self.url {
-            return Some(url.clone());
-        }
-        let path = self.path.as_deref()?;
-        let base = reference.base_url.as_deref()?;
-        Some(match (base.ends_with('/'), path.starts_with('/')) {
-            (true, true) => format!("{base}{}", &path[1..]),
-            (false, false) => format!("{base}/{path}"),
-            _ => format!("{base}{path}"),
-        })
+        reference.href(self.url.as_deref(), self.path.as_deref())
     }
 
     /// A short citation for a report: `KKW §6.1`.
@@ -476,7 +636,7 @@ impl Reading {
         if let Some(text) = &self.text {
             return text.clone();
         }
-        let label = reference.label.as_deref().unwrap_or(key);
+        let label = reference.label_or(key);
         match &self.locator {
             Some(locator) => format!("{label} {locator}"),
             None => label.to_string(),
@@ -640,15 +800,25 @@ pub struct Objective {
     /// The lectures that develop it.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
     pub lectures: Vec<String>,
-    /// Position in teaching order, low first.
+    /// Position in teaching order, low first. Derived; authoring it is
+    /// deprecated.
     ///
-    /// The registry is a map, so declaration order is lost on load, and sorting
+    /// The registry is a map, so declaration order is lost on load and sorting
     /// by id would put `lo-enthalpy` before `lo-first-law` when the second is a
-    /// prerequisite of the first. Anything that prints objectives in the order
-    /// you teach them, a lecture page above all, needs this. Objectives without
-    /// it sort last, by id.
+    /// prerequisite of the first. Something has to supply the order.
+    ///
+    /// Since 2.0 that something is [`Lecture::teaches`], which is a sequence:
+    /// the position of an objective in the list of what a lecture covers, and
+    /// the position of the lecture in the course, together say when it is
+    /// taught. [`fragment::assemble`] fills this in from those two, so a course
+    /// that used to carry thirty-nine hand-kept integers now carries none, and
+    /// inserting an objective is a one-line edit rather than a renumber.
+    ///
+    /// An authored value still wins, so a 1.0 course loads unchanged.
+    /// `coursebank migrate order` removes them.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub order: Option<u32>,
+
     /// The highest level you intend to assess this objective at. Assembling an
     /// item above the ceiling is a warning: either the item overreaches or the
     /// ceiling needs raising.
@@ -705,8 +875,20 @@ pub struct Target {
     ///
     /// Ordered within its objective rather than across the course, so two
     /// targets under different objectives never compete for a position and
-    /// inserting one renumbers nothing outside its own group.
-    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    /// Retained only so a pre-2.0 course still loads. Ignored.
+    ///
+    /// Targets do not have an order. An objective's targets are a set of
+    /// question templates, not steps in a sequence: they are not taught in
+    /// order, an exam samples from them rather than working through them, and
+    /// the study workflow reads the list as a checklist and counts what it can
+    /// do cold. A position would assert a sequence that does not exist.
+    ///
+    /// Where a list has to be printed, [`CourseFile::targets`] orders it by
+    /// ceiling and then by id. Where one target genuinely depends on another,
+    /// that is [`Target::prerequisites`], which says so directly.
+    ///
+    /// `coursebank migrate order` removes it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
     pub order: Option<u32>,
     /// The highest level you intend to assess this target at. Omit it to inherit
     /// the objective's.
@@ -761,7 +943,12 @@ impl CourseFile {
         yaml::read(path)
     }
 
-    /// Finds and loads the course file for a course directory.
+    /// Loads the course for a course directory, merging every fragment it holds.
+    ///
+    /// This is the entry point every command uses. A directory holding only
+    /// `course.yaml` gives the same result it always did; one that also holds
+    /// `lectures/`, `objectives/`, or `references.yaml` gets them merged in. See
+    /// [`fragment::assemble`].
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
@@ -769,34 +956,167 @@ impl CourseFile {
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// The parsed course file.
+    /// The merged course file.
     ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Propagates load errors, including absence of `course.yaml`.
+    /// Propagates load errors, including absence of `course.yaml`, and returns
+    /// [`Error::Invalid`] when two files define the same id.
     pub fn load_dir(dir: &Path) -> Result<CourseFile> {
-        CourseFile::load(&dir.join(COURSE_FILE))
+        fragment::assemble(dir)
+    }
+
+    /// Which file defined an id, and which registry it was in.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `id` - a unit, lecture, objective, target, reference, or stimulus id.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The section and the path relative to the course root, or `None` for an
+    /// unknown id or a course that was not assembled from fragments.
+    pub fn origin(&self, id: &str) -> Option<(Section, &Path)> {
+        Section::ALL.iter().find_map(|section| {
+            self.origins
+                .get(&(*section, id.to_string()))
+                .map(|path| (*section, path.as_path()))
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Every file this course was assembled from, in sorted order.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The paths relative to the course root, empty for a course parsed from a
+    /// single file by [`CourseFile::load`].
+    pub fn fragment_paths(&self) -> Vec<&Path> {
+        let mut paths: Vec<&Path> = self.origins.values().map(PathBuf::as_path).collect();
+        paths.sort_unstable();
+        paths.dedup();
+        paths
     }
 
     /// Writes the course file back out as YAML.
     ///
+    /// Refuses to write a course that was assembled from more than one file,
+    /// because the merged model has no home on disk: writing it to
+    /// `course.yaml` would leave every fragment defining ids the root file also
+    /// defines, which is the one thing [`fragment::assemble`] treats as an
+    /// error. Use [`CourseFile::write_resolved`] for an inspection copy.
+    ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `path` - destination path.
     ///
     /// # Errors
     ///
-    /// Returns [`Error::Io`] on a write failure.
+    /// Returns [`Error::Usage`] for a fragmented course and [`Error::Io`] on a
+    /// write failure.
     pub fn save(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+        let sources = self.fragment_paths();
+        if sources.len() > 1 {
+            return Err(Error::usage(format!(
+                "this course is assembled from {} files, so it cannot be written back to one. \
+                 Edit the fragment that owns what you are changing, or use `coursebank course \
+                 build` for a merged copy.",
+                sources.len()
+            )));
+        }
         yaml::write(path, self)
     }
 
+    /// Writes the merged course as YAML, for reading rather than for loading.
+    ///
+    /// The output carries a banner saying so. It is what `coursebank course
+    /// build` writes, and nothing in the tool reads it back: a generated file
+    /// that commands depend on is a file that goes stale.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - destination path.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Io`] on a write failure, or [`Error::Other`] if the
+    /// model cannot be represented as YAML.
+    pub fn write_resolved(&self, path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
+        let body = yaml::to_string(self)?;
+        let banner = format!(
+            "# Generated by `coursebank course build` from {} file(s). Do not edit: nothing\n\
+             # reads this, and the next build overwrites it. Edit the fragments instead.\n",
+            self.fragment_paths().len().max(1)
+        );
+        yaml::write_text(path, &format!("{banner}{body}"))
+    }
+
     /// Checks internal consistency of the registries.
     ///
+    /// Each message is prefixed with the file that defined the id it is about,
+    /// when that is known. For an unsplit course that is always `course.yaml`,
+    /// which is what the messages used to say.
+    ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// Every problem found, empty when the file is sound.
     pub fn validate(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        self.problems()
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|issue| self.attribute(issue))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// Prefixes one validation message with the fragment it concerns.
+    ///
+    /// The id is taken from the first backticked token in the message, since
+    /// every message that is about a registry entry names it first. Messages
+    /// about `course`, `policy`, or `units` are attributed by section instead,
+    /// because the first thing they quote is a field or a grade letter.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `issue` - the message.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The message, prefixed with a path when one is known.
+    fn attribute(&self, issue: String) -> String {
+        let section = if issue.starts_with("course.") {
+            Some(Section::Course)
+        } else if issue.starts_with("policy.") {
+            Some(Section::Policy)
+        } else if issue.starts_with("units") {
+            Some(Section::Units)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+
+        let path = match section {
+            Some(section) => self.section_origin(section),
+            None => issue
+                .split('`')
+                .nth(1)
+                .and_then(|id| self.origin(id))
+                .map(|(_, path)| path),
+        };
+
+        match path {
+            Some(path) => format!("{}: {issue}", path.display()),
+            None => issue,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// The file that declared a whole section, for the sections that are not
+    /// keyed by id.
+    fn section_origin(&self, section: Section) -> Option<&Path> {
+        self.origins
+            .iter()
+            .find(|((s, _), _)| *s == section)
+            .map(|(_, path)| path.as_path())
+    }
+
+    /// The validation messages, before they are attributed to files.
+    fn problems(&self) -> Vec<String> {
         let mut issues = Vec::new();
 
         if self.course.code.trim().is_empty() {
@@ -874,6 +1194,52 @@ impl CourseFile {
             if reference.title.trim().is_empty() {
                 issues.push(format!("reference `{key}`: empty title"));
             }
+            // Checked rather than silently coerced: `href` strips a resolver
+            // prefix, but something that is not a DOI at all would become a
+            // link that 404s on a student's reading list.
+            if let Some(doi) = &reference.doi {
+                if !bare_doi(doi).starts_with("10.") {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "reference `{key}`: `{doi}` is not a DOI. Write it bare, as \
+                         10.1038/nature12373."
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            // A manuscript with no journal is a citation nobody can print. The
+            // fields exist; a note that carries them instead is data the reading
+            // list cannot link and the bibliography exporters cannot use.
+            if matches!(
+                reference.kind,
+                ReferenceKind::Article | ReferenceKind::Preprint
+            ) && reference.container.is_none()
+            {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "reference `{key}`: an {} needs a `container` — the journal, preprint \
+                     server, or proceedings it appeared in. Run `coursebank migrate references` \
+                     if it is sitting in the `note`.",
+                    match reference.kind {
+                        ReferenceKind::Preprint => "preprint",
+                        _ => "article",
+                    }
+                ));
+            }
+            if let Some(note) = &reference.note {
+                if crate::citation::looks_like_a_citation(note) {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "reference `{key}`: the note still carries a citation. Volume, pages, \
+                         and DOI have their own fields, and a DOI in a note is a link nobody \
+                         can follow. `coursebank migrate references` takes it apart."
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            if let Some(pmid) = &reference.pmid {
+                if !pmid.trim().chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()) {
+                    issues.push(format!(
+                        "reference `{key}`: pmid `{pmid}` is not a number. A `PMC...` id goes in \
+                         `pmcid`."
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
             if let Some(label) = &reference.label {
                 labels.entry(label.as_str()).or_default().push(key);
             }
@@ -897,6 +1263,20 @@ impl CourseFile {
                     issues.push(format!("lecture `{id}`: unknown unit `{u}`"));
                 }
             }
+            for objective in &lec.teaches {
+                if !self.learning_objectives.contains_key(objective) {
+                    if self.learning_targets.contains_key(objective) {
+                        issues.push(format!(
+                            "lecture `{id}`: `teaches` names the target `{objective}`, but it \
+                             registers objectives. A target is reached through its objective."
+                        ));
+                    } else {
+                        issues.push(format!(
+                            "lecture `{id}`: `teaches` names an unknown objective `{objective}`"
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
             let mut seen: Vec<(&str, &str)> = Vec::new();
             for (index, reading) in lec.readings.iter().enumerate() {
                 issues.extend(self.reading_issues(id, index, reading, &mut seen));
@@ -1315,9 +1695,20 @@ impl CourseFile {
             .filter(|(_, target)| target.objective == objective)
             .map(|(id, _)| id)
             .collect();
+        // By ceiling, then by id. A target is a question template rather than a
+        // step in a sequence — an objective's targets are not taught in an
+        // order, and an exam samples from them — so there is no teaching order
+        // to print. What there is is depth, and grouping by it puts the
+        // checklist in the order the study methods apply: recall for a Level 1
+        // target, explanation for Level 2, variations and written solutions
+        // above that. Ties break by id so the list is stable.
         ids.sort_by_key(|id| {
-            let target = &self.learning_targets[*id];
-            (target.order.unwrap_or(u32::MAX), (*id).clone())
+            (
+                self.effective_level_ceiling(id)
+                    .map(|l| l.code())
+                    .unwrap_or(0),
+                (*id).clone(),
+            )
         });
         ids.into_iter().map(String::as_str).collect()
     }
@@ -1770,6 +2161,7 @@ impl CourseFile {
                 date: None,
                 unit: Some("u-intro".to_string()),
                 slides_url: None,
+                teaches: Vec::new(),
                 readings: Vec::new(),
             },
         );
@@ -1825,6 +2217,7 @@ impl CourseFile {
             learning_targets: targets,
             references: BTreeMap::new(),
             stimuli: BTreeMap::new(),
+            origins: BTreeMap::new(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -1893,7 +2286,7 @@ course:
   term: Spring 2026
 "#,
         );
-        assert_eq!(c.schema_version, "1.0");
+        assert_eq!(c.schema_version, SCHEMA_VERSION);
         assert_eq!(c.policy.options_per_item, 4);
         assert_eq!(c.course.slug(), "biosc-1540");
         assert!(c.validate().is_empty());
@@ -2040,6 +2433,105 @@ learning_objectives:
         assert_eq!(reading.cite("kuriyan2013molecules", reference), "KKW §6.1");
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn a_link_resolves_from_the_exact_location_outward() {
+        let mut reference = Reference {
+            title: "Basic local alignment search tool".into(),
+            kind: ReferenceKind::Article,
+            ..Reference::default()
+        };
+
+        // Nothing at all to link to.
+        assert_eq!(reference.href(None, None), None);
+
+        // A DOI is a link to the work, which beats nothing.
+        reference.doi = Some("10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2".into());
+        assert_eq!(
+            reference.href(None, None).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2")
+        );
+
+        // The work's own URL is more use than its identifier.
+        reference.url = Some("https://example.org/blast".into());
+        assert_eq!(
+            reference.href(None, None).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://example.org/blast")
+        );
+
+        // A location inside the work beats the work.
+        reference.base_url = Some("https://example.org/blast/".into());
+        assert_eq!(
+            reference.href(None, Some("/§2")).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://example.org/blast/§2")
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            reference
+                .href(Some("https://example.org/exact"), Some("§2"))
+                .as_deref(),
+            Some("https://example.org/exact")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn identifiers_are_normalized_before_they_become_links() {
+        let doi_as_url = Reference {
+            title: "T".into(),
+            doi: Some("https://doi.org/10.1/x".into()),
+            ..Reference::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            doi_as_url.href(None, None).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://doi.org/10.1/x")
+        );
+
+        let preprint = Reference {
+            title: "T".into(),
+            kind: ReferenceKind::Preprint,
+            arxiv: Some("arXiv:2301.00001".into()),
+            ..Reference::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            preprint.href(None, None).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.00001")
+        );
+
+        // A bare number is still a PMC id.
+        let open_access = Reference {
+            title: "T".into(),
+            pmcid: Some("3084216".into()),
+            ..Reference::default()
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            open_access.href(None, None).as_deref(),
+            Some("https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3084216/")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn something_that_is_not_a_doi_is_reported() {
+        let c = parse(
+            r#"
+course: { code: X, title: Y, term: Z }
+references:
+  bad:
+    title: A work
+    doi: nature12373
+  worse:
+    title: Another work
+    pmid: PMC3084216
+"#,
+        );
+        let issues = c.validate();
+        assert!(
+            issues.iter().any(|i| i.contains("is not a DOI")),
+            "{issues:?}"
+        );
+        assert!(
+            issues.iter().any(|i| i.contains("is not a number")),
+            "{issues:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn a_bare_string_reading_still_parses_and_round_trips() {
         let c = parse(

src/model/course/fragment.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,974 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Prosperity-3.0.0
+// Copyright Scientific Computing Studio
+// Source: https://git.scient.ing/education/coursebank
+
+//! One course, several files.
+//!
+//! A course of forty lectures does not fit in a file anyone wants to scroll. So
+//! the registries [`CourseFile`] holds may be spread across a directory and
+//! merged on load:
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! course.yaml            course, policy, units
+//! references.yaml        references
+//! lectures/l-1-2.yaml    one lecture, its readings, and what it teaches
+//! objectives/lo-x.yaml   one objective and its targets
+//! ```
+//!
+//! The merge happens in memory on every command. Nothing is generated on disk
+//! and no command depends on a build step, because a generated file that other
+//! commands read is a file that goes stale. `coursebank course build` exists to
+//! show you the merged result, and nothing reads what it writes.
+//!
+//! # What this does not relax
+//!
+//! Splitting a file is only worth doing if it cannot introduce a second
+//! definition of the same thing. Two rules keep that true, and both are enforced
+//! here rather than left to convention:
+//!
+//! * **One definition site per id.** Two files defining `lo-read-file-formats`
+//!   is an error naming both paths. The winner is not the last file loaded,
+//!   because there is no winner.
+//! * **A section belongs to a kind of file.** A file under `lectures/` may not
+//!   define `learning_objectives`. Otherwise the layout decays into forty files
+//!   that each might hold anything, which is the same navigation problem in a
+//!   worse shape.
+//!
+//! `course.yaml` is exempt from the second rule: a course that has not been
+//! split is a single fragment that happens to define everything, and it keeps
+//! loading unchanged.
+//!
+//! # Two derivations
+//!
+//! Splitting by lecture makes two fields tedious to maintain by hand, so they
+//! are derived instead:
+//!
+//! * A lecture's `teaches:` list adds that lecture to each named objective's
+//!   `lectures`. You write what a lecture covers while planning the lecture,
+//!   which is when you know.
+//! * A target with no `lectures` of its own inherits its objective's, the same
+//!   way it already inherits `level_ceiling`.
+//!
+//! Both are unions and both are idempotent, so declaring a pair on both sides
+//! is redundant rather than contradictory.
+
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+use super::{
+    COURSE_FILE, Course, CourseFile, Lecture, Objective, Policy, Reference, SCHEMA_VERSION,
+    SUPPORTED_MAJORS, Stimulus, Target, Unit,
+};
+use crate::error::{Error, Result};
+use crate::layout::Layout;
+use crate::yaml;
+
+/// The file holding the bibliography when it is kept out of `course.yaml`.
+pub const REFERENCES_FILE: &str = "references.yaml";
+
+/// One registry section of a course.
+///
+/// Used to say which file a fact came from, and to keep a fragment from
+/// defining something that belongs somewhere else.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub enum Section {
+    /// Course identity.
+    Course,
+    /// Course-wide policy.
+    Policy,
+    /// Units.
+    Units,
+    /// Lectures.
+    Lectures,
+    /// Learning objectives.
+    Objectives,
+    /// Learning targets.
+    Targets,
+    /// Works the course cites.
+    References,
+    /// Shared stimuli.
+    Stimuli,
+}
+
+impl Section {
+    /// Every section, in the order a merged course lists them.
+    pub const ALL: [Section; 8] = [
+        Section::Course,
+        Section::Policy,
+        Section::Units,
+        Section::Lectures,
+        Section::Objectives,
+        Section::Targets,
+        Section::References,
+        Section::Stimuli,
+    ];
+
+    /// The YAML key this section is written under.
+    pub fn key(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Section::Course => "course",
+            Section::Policy => "policy",
+            Section::Units => "units",
+            Section::Lectures => "lectures",
+            Section::Objectives => "learning_objectives",
+            Section::Targets => "learning_targets",
+            Section::References => "references",
+            Section::Stimuli => "stimuli",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// What one of its entries is called in a message.
+    pub fn noun(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Section::Course => "course identity",
+            Section::Policy => "policy",
+            Section::Units => "unit",
+            Section::Lectures => "lecture",
+            Section::Objectives => "objective",
+            Section::Targets => "target",
+            Section::References => "reference",
+            Section::Stimuli => "stimulus",
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Where a file defining this section is expected to live.
+    pub fn home(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Section::Course | Section::Policy | Section::Units => COURSE_FILE,
+            Section::Lectures => "lectures/*.yaml",
+            Section::Objectives | Section::Targets | Section::Stimuli => "objectives/*.yaml",
+            Section::References => REFERENCES_FILE,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for Section {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        f.write_str(self.key())
+    }
+}
+
+/// What kind of file a fragment is, which fixes what it may define.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum Role {
+    /// `course.yaml`. May define anything, so an unsplit course still loads.
+    Root,
+    /// `references.yaml`.
+    References,
+    /// A file under `lectures/`.
+    Lecture,
+    /// A file under `objectives/`.
+    Objective,
+}
+
+impl Role {
+    /// Whether a file in this role may define a section.
+    pub fn allows(self, section: Section) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Role::Root => true,
+            Role::References => section == Section::References,
+            Role::Lecture => section == Section::Lectures,
+            Role::Objective => matches!(
+                section,
+                Section::Objectives | Section::Targets | Section::Stimuli
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A short name for a message.
+    pub fn label(self) -> &'static str {
+        match self {
+            Role::Root => "course",
+            Role::References => "references",
+            Role::Lecture => "lecture",
+            Role::Objective => "objective",
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// One file's worth of course registries.
+///
+/// Every section is optional, which is what makes this both the fragment schema
+/// and — with every section filled in — the schema of an unsplit `course.yaml`.
+/// [`CourseFile`] is the resolved model the rest of the crate reads; this is
+/// only what one file on disk is allowed to say.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct Fragment {
+    /// Schema version this file targets.
+    #[serde(
+        default,
+        deserialize_with = "yaml::flexible_string_opt",
+        skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none"
+    )]
+    pub schema_version: Option<String>,
+
+    /// Course identity. Exactly one fragment must carry it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub course: Option<Course>,
+
+    /// Course-wide policy.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub policy: Option<Policy>,
+
+    /// Units, in teaching order.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub units: Vec<Unit>,
+
+    /// Lectures by id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub lectures: BTreeMap<String, Lecture>,
+
+    /// Learning objectives by id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub learning_objectives: BTreeMap<String, Objective>,
+
+    /// Learning targets by id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub learning_targets: BTreeMap<String, Target>,
+
+    /// Works the course cites, by citation key.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub references: BTreeMap<String, Reference>,
+
+    /// Shared stimuli by id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub stimuli: BTreeMap<String, Stimulus>,
+}
+
+impl Fragment {
+    /// Loads one fragment from disk.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - the file to read.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The parsed fragment.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`Error::Io`] if unreadable and [`Error::Yaml`] if it does not
+    /// match the schema. Unknown keys are errors, so a misspelled section name
+    /// is caught here rather than silently contributing nothing.
+    pub fn load(path: &Path) -> Result<Fragment> {
+        yaml::read(path)
+    }
+
+    /// Which sections this fragment actually defines.
+    pub fn sections(&self) -> Vec<Section> {
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        if self.course.is_some() {
+            out.push(Section::Course);
+        }
+        if self.policy.is_some() {
+            out.push(Section::Policy);
+        }
+        if !self.units.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::Units);
+        }
+        if !self.lectures.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::Lectures);
+        }
+        if !self.learning_objectives.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::Objectives);
+        }
+        if !self.learning_targets.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::Targets);
+        }
+        if !self.references.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::References);
+        }
+        if !self.stimuli.is_empty() {
+            out.push(Section::Stimuli);
+        }
+        out
+    }
+}
+
+/// The fragment files of a course directory, in load order, with their roles.
+///
+/// `course.yaml` is listed whether or not it exists, so a directory that is not
+/// a course fails with a message naming the file it wanted rather than an empty
+/// merge. Directory contents are sorted, which is what makes the merged course
+/// independent of filesystem order.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `layout` - the resolved course layout.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// Paths paired with what each file is allowed to define.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::Io`] when a fragment directory exists but cannot be read.
+pub fn files(layout: &Layout) -> Result<Vec<(PathBuf, Role)>> {
+    let mut out = vec![(layout.course_file(), Role::Root)];
+
+    let references = layout.references_file();
+    if references.is_file() {
+        out.push((references, Role::References));
+    }
+    for path in yaml::list_yaml(&layout.lectures())? {
+        out.push((path, Role::Lecture));
+    }
+    for path in yaml::list_yaml(&layout.objectives())? {
+        out.push((path, Role::Objective));
+    }
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+/// Loads every fragment in a course directory and merges them into one course.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `root` - the course directory.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The merged course, with [`CourseFile::origins`] recording which file defined
+/// each id.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Propagates load errors, and returns [`Error::Invalid`] with every merge
+/// problem at once: an id defined twice, a section in the wrong kind of file, a
+/// fragment written against another major schema version, or no `course:`
+/// section anywhere.
+///
+/// Cross-references are *not* checked here. A dangling objective id is a
+/// content problem, and content problems are [`CourseFile::validate`]'s, so that
+/// they are reported the same way whether or not the course is split.
+pub fn assemble(root: &Path) -> Result<CourseFile> {
+    let layout = Layout::new(root);
+    let mut merge = Merge::default();
+
+    for (path, role) in files(&layout)? {
+        let fragment = Fragment::load(&path)?;
+        let shown = path.strip_prefix(root).unwrap_or(&path).to_path_buf();
+        merge.take(&shown, role, fragment);
+    }
+
+    merge.resolve();
+    merge.finish(root)
+}
+
+/// Accumulates fragments, remembering where each id came from.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct Merge {
+    schema_version: Option<String>,
+    course: Option<Course>,
+    policy: Option<Policy>,
+    units: Vec<Unit>,
+    lectures: BTreeMap<String, Lecture>,
+    objectives: BTreeMap<String, Objective>,
+    targets: BTreeMap<String, Target>,
+    references: BTreeMap<String, Reference>,
+    stimuli: BTreeMap<String, Stimulus>,
+    origins: BTreeMap<(Section, String), PathBuf>,
+    issues: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+impl Merge {
+    /// Folds one fragment in.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `path` - the fragment's path relative to the course root, for messages.
+    /// * `role` - what this file is allowed to define.
+    /// * `fragment` - the parsed fragment.
+    fn take(&mut self, path: &Path, role: Role, fragment: Fragment) {
+        for section in fragment.sections() {
+            if !role.allows(section) {
+                self.issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: a {} file may not define `{}`; that section belongs in {}",
+                    path.display(),
+                    role.label(),
+                    section.key(),
+                    section.home()
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+
+        if let Some(declared) = &fragment.schema_version {
+            if !SUPPORTED_MAJORS.contains(&major(declared)) {
+                self.issues.push(format!(
+                    "{}: declares schema_version {declared}, which this build cannot read. It \
+                     writes {SCHEMA_VERSION} and reads {}.",
+                    path.display(),
+                    SUPPORTED_MAJORS
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|m| format!("{m}.x"))
+                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                        .join(" and ")
+                ));
+            }
+            if self.schema_version.is_none() {
+                self.schema_version = Some(declared.clone());
+            }
+        }
+
+        if role.allows(Section::Course) {
+            if let Some(course) = fragment.course {
+                if self.claim(Section::Course, path) {
+                    self.course = Some(course);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if role.allows(Section::Policy) {
+            if let Some(policy) = fragment.policy {
+                if self.claim(Section::Policy, path) {
+                    self.policy = Some(policy);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if role.allows(Section::Units) {
+            for unit in fragment.units {
+                let key = (Section::Units, unit.id.clone());
+                if let Some(first) = self.origins.get(&key) {
+                    let message = duplicate(Section::Units, &unit.id, first.as_path(), path);
+                    self.issues.push(message);
+                    continue;
+                }
+                self.origins.insert(key, path.to_path_buf());
+                self.units.push(unit);
+            }
+        }
+
+        if role.allows(Section::Lectures) {
+            absorb(
+                &mut self.lectures,
+                fragment.lectures,
+                Section::Lectures,
+                path,
+                &mut self.origins,
+                &mut self.issues,
+            );
+        }
+        if role.allows(Section::Objectives) {
+            absorb(
+                &mut self.objectives,
+                fragment.learning_objectives,
+                Section::Objectives,
+                path,
+                &mut self.origins,
+                &mut self.issues,
+            );
+        }
+        if role.allows(Section::Targets) {
+            absorb(
+                &mut self.targets,
+                fragment.learning_targets,
+                Section::Targets,
+                path,
+                &mut self.origins,
+                &mut self.issues,
+            );
+        }
+        if role.allows(Section::References) {
+            absorb(
+                &mut self.references,
+                fragment.references,
+                Section::References,
+                path,
+                &mut self.origins,
+                &mut self.issues,
+            );
+        }
+        if role.allows(Section::Stimuli) {
+            absorb(
+                &mut self.stimuli,
+                fragment.stimuli,
+                Section::Stimuli,
+                path,
+                &mut self.origins,
+                &mut self.issues,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Records a section that may only be declared once.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `section` - the section being claimed.
+    /// * `path` - the file claiming it.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// Whether the claim was the first, and so whether the caller should store
+    /// what it parsed.
+    fn claim(&mut self, section: Section, path: &Path) -> bool {
+        let key = (section, String::new());
+        if let Some(first) = self.origins.get(&key) {
+            let message = format!(
+                "`{}` is declared twice: {} and {}. It applies to the whole course, so it has \
+                 one definition site.",
+                section.key(),
+                first.display(),
+                path.display()
+            );
+            self.issues.push(message);
+            return false;
+        }
+        self.origins.insert(key, path.to_path_buf());
+        true
+    }
+
+    /// Fills in the two fields a split layout would otherwise duplicate.
+    fn resolve(&mut self) {
+        // A lecture says what it teaches; the objective's lecture list follows.
+        for (lecture_id, lecture) in &self.lectures {
+            for objective_id in &lecture.teaches {
+                if let Some(objective) = self.objectives.get_mut(objective_id) {
+                    if !objective.lectures.iter().any(|l| l == lecture_id) {
+                        objective.lectures.push(lecture_id.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Teaching order, from the two sequences that already declare it: the
+        // lectures in course order, and each lecture's `teaches` list. This is
+        // what lets an objective stop carrying a hand-kept integer.
+        let mut position = 0u32;
+        let ordered: Vec<String> = self.lectures.keys().cloned().collect();
+        for lecture_id in ordered {
+            let teaches = self
+                .lectures
+                .get(&lecture_id)
+                .map(|l| l.teaches.clone())
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            for objective_id in teaches {
+                position += 1;
+                if let Some(objective) = self.objectives.get_mut(&objective_id) {
+                    if objective.order.is_none() {
+                        objective.order = Some(position);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // A target with no lecture of its own is taught wherever its objective
+        // is. Collected first: the read of `objectives` and the write to
+        // `targets` cannot overlap in one pass.
+        let inherited: Vec<(String, Vec<String>)> = self
+            .targets
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|(_, target)| target.lectures.is_empty())
+            .filter_map(|(id, target)| {
+                self.objectives
+                    .get(&target.objective)
+                    .map(|objective| (id.clone(), objective.lectures.clone()))
+            })
+            .collect();
+        for (id, lectures) in inherited {
+            if let Some(target) = self.targets.get_mut(&id) {
+                target.lectures = lectures;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Builds the course, or reports every merge problem at once.
+    fn finish(self, root: &Path) -> Result<CourseFile> {
+        let mut issues = self.issues;
+        let course = match self.course {
+            Some(course) => course,
+            None => {
+                issues.push(format!(
+                    "no file in {} declares a `course:` section, so the course has no code, \
+                     title, or term",
+                    root.display()
+                ));
+                return Err(Error::Invalid(issues));
+            }
+        };
+        if !issues.is_empty() {
+            return Err(Error::Invalid(issues));
+        }
+
+        Ok(CourseFile {
+            schema_version: self
+                .schema_version
+                .unwrap_or_else(|| SCHEMA_VERSION.to_string()),
+            course,
+            policy: self.policy.unwrap_or_default(),
+            units: self.units,
+            lectures: self.lectures,
+            learning_objectives: self.objectives,
+            learning_targets: self.targets,
+            references: self.references,
+            stimuli: self.stimuli,
+            origins: self.origins,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+/// Moves one section's entries across, refusing a second definition.
+fn absorb<T>(
+    into: &mut BTreeMap<String, T>,
+    from: BTreeMap<String, T>,
+    section: Section,
+    path: &Path,
+    origins: &mut BTreeMap<(Section, String), PathBuf>,
+    issues: &mut Vec<String>,
+) {
+    for (id, value) in from {
+        let key = (section, id.clone());
+        if let Some(first) = origins.get(&key) {
+            issues.push(duplicate(section, &id, first.as_path(), path));
+            continue;
+        }
+        origins.insert(key, path.to_path_buf());
+        into.insert(id, value);
+    }
+}
+
+/// The message for an id defined in two files.
+fn duplicate(section: Section, id: &str, first: &Path, second: &Path) -> String {
+    format!(
+        "{} `{id}` is defined in two places: {} and {}. An id has one definition site; delete \
+         one or rename it.",
+        section.noun(),
+        first.display(),
+        second.display()
+    )
+}
+
+/// The part of a schema version before the first dot.
+fn major(version: &str) -> &str {
+    version.split('.').next().unwrap_or(version)
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn tmp(tag: &str) -> PathBuf {
+        let p = std::env::temp_dir().join(format!("coursebank-frag-{tag}-{}", std::process::id()));
+        let _ = std::fs::remove_dir_all(&p);
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(&p).unwrap();
+        p
+    }
+
+    fn write(root: &Path, relative: &str, body: &str) {
+        let path = root.join(relative);
+        std::fs::create_dir_all(path.parent().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(path, body).unwrap();
+    }
+
+    const ROOT: &str = r#"
+course:
+  code: BIOSC 1540
+  title: Computational Biology
+  term: 2026f
+policy:
+  points_per_item: 1.0
+units:
+  - id: u1
+    title: Search and Similarity
+"#;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_split_course_merges_into_one_model() {
+        let root = tmp("merge");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "references.yaml",
+            "references:\n  ismail2023:\n    title: Bioinformatics\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: The Digital Genome\n    unit: u1\n    \
+             teaches: [lo-read-file-formats]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-read-file-formats.yaml",
+            "learning_objectives:\n  lo-read-file-formats:\n    text: Read the text formats.\n    \
+             unit: u1\nlearning_targets:\n  t-fastq-structure:\n    text: Identify the four \
+             lines.\n    objective: lo-read-file-formats\n",
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(course.course.code, "BIOSC 1540");
+        assert_eq!(course.units.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(course.references.len(), 1);
+        assert!(course.validate().is_empty(), "{:?}", course.validate());
+
+        // Derived: the lecture registered the objective, and the target
+        // inherited the objective's lecture.
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.learning_objectives["lo-read-file-formats"].lectures,
+            vec!["L1.2".to_string()]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.learning_targets["t-fastq-structure"].lectures,
+            vec!["L1.2".to_string()]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(course.lecture_targets("L1.2"), vec!["t-fastq-structure"]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_unsplit_course_file_still_loads() {
+        let root = tmp("monolith");
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "course.yaml",
+            &format!(
+                "{ROOT}lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: The Digital Genome\nlearning_objectives:\n  \
+                 lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n    lectures: [L1.2]\nlearning_targets:\n  \
+                 t-x:\n    text: Do the smaller thing.\n    objective: lo-x\nreferences:\n  \
+                 ismail2023:\n    title: Bioinformatics\n"
+            ),
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        assert!(course.validate().is_empty(), "{:?}", course.validate());
+        assert_eq!(course.lecture_objectives("L1.2"), vec!["lo-x"]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.origin("lo-x").map(|(_, p)| p.to_path_buf()),
+            Some(PathBuf::from(COURSE_FILE))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_id_defined_twice_names_both_files() {
+        let root = tmp("dup");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        let body = "learning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n";
+        write(&root, "objectives/lo-x.yaml", body);
+        write(&root, "objectives/lo-x-old.yaml", body);
+
+        let err = assemble(&root).unwrap_err();
+        let message = err.to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("objectives/lo-x.yaml"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("objectives/lo-x-old.yaml"), "{message}");
+        assert!(message.contains("one definition site"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_section_in_the_wrong_kind_of_file_is_rejected() {
+        let root = tmp("misplaced");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: The Digital Genome\nlearning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    \
+             text: Do the thing.\n",
+        );
+
+        let message = assemble(&root).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(
+            message.contains("may not define `learning_objectives`"),
+            "{message}"
+        );
+        assert!(message.contains("objectives/*.yaml"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_course_with_no_identity_says_so() {
+        let root = tmp("no-course");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", "units:\n  - id: u1\n    title: One\n");
+        let message = assemble(&root).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("`course:` section"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_fragment_from_another_major_version_is_refused() {
+        let root = tmp("version");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-x.yaml",
+            "schema_version: '9.0'\nlearning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n",
+        );
+        let message = assemble(&root).unwrap_err().to_string();
+        assert!(message.contains("schema_version 9.0"), "{message}");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn origins_point_at_the_fragment_that_defined_each_id() {
+        let root = tmp("origins");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: The Digital Genome\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-x.yaml",
+            "learning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n",
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        let (section, path) = course.origin("lo-x").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(section, Section::Objectives);
+        assert_eq!(path, Path::new("objectives/lo-x.yaml"));
+        let (section, path) = course.origin("L1.2").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(section, Section::Lectures);
+        assert_eq!(path, Path::new("lectures/l-1-2.yaml"));
+        assert!(course.origin("nothing-like-this").is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn teaching_order_is_derived_from_the_two_sequences_that_declare_it() {
+        let root = tmp("order");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: One\n    teaches: [lo-second, lo-first]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-3.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.3:\n    title: Two\n    teaches: [lo-third]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-first.yaml",
+            r#"learning_objectives:
+  lo-first:
+    text: A.
+  lo-second:
+    text: B.
+  lo-third:
+    text: C.
+"#,
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        // Position in `teaches`, not id order: the lecture lists `lo-second`
+        // first and that is what teaching it first means.
+        assert_eq!(course.learning_objectives["lo-second"].order, Some(1));
+        assert_eq!(course.learning_objectives["lo-first"].order, Some(2));
+        assert_eq!(course.learning_objectives["lo-third"].order, Some(3));
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.lecture_objectives("L1.2"),
+            vec!["lo-second", "lo-first"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn targets_print_by_ceiling_rather_than_in_a_sequence() {
+        let root = tmp("target-order");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: One\n    teaches: [lo-x]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-x.yaml",
+            r#"learning_objectives:
+  lo-x:
+    text: A.
+    level_ceiling: 3
+learning_targets:
+  t-predict:
+    text: Predict the effect.
+    objective: lo-x
+    level_ceiling: 3
+  t-define:
+    text: Define the term.
+    objective: lo-x
+    level_ceiling: 1
+  t-explain:
+    text: Explain the mechanism.
+    objective: lo-x
+    level_ceiling: 2
+"#,
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        assert!(course.validate().is_empty(), "{:?}", course.validate());
+
+        // Shallowest first, which is the order the study methods apply in:
+        // recall, then explanation, then variations. Not id order, which would
+        // put `t-define` after `t-predict` for no reason at all.
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.targets("lo-x"),
+            vec!["t-define", "t-explain", "t-predict"]
+        );
+
+        // A target with no ceiling of its own inherits the objective's, so it
+        // sorts where that puts it.
+        assert_eq!(course.learning_targets["t-define"].order, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn teaching_the_same_objective_from_two_lectures_unions() {
+        let root = tmp("union");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: One\n    teaches: [lo-x]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-3.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.3:\n    title: Two\n    teaches: [lo-x]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-x.yaml",
+            "learning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n",
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.learning_objectives["lo-x"].lectures,
+            vec!["L1.2".to_string(), "L1.3".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_declaration_on_both_sides_is_not_duplicated() {
+        let root = tmp("both-sides");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: One\n    teaches: [lo-x]\n",
+        );
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "objectives/lo-x.yaml",
+            "learning_objectives:\n  lo-x:\n    text: Do the thing.\n    lectures: [L1.2]\n",
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            course.learning_objectives["lo-x"].lectures,
+            vec!["L1.2".to_string()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn teaching_an_unknown_objective_is_a_validation_problem_not_a_merge_one() {
+        let root = tmp("unknown-teaches");
+        write(&root, "course.yaml", ROOT);
+        write(
+            &root,
+            "lectures/l-1-2.yaml",
+            "lectures:\n  L1.2:\n    title: One\n    teaches: [lo-nope]\n",
+        );
+
+        let course = assemble(&root).unwrap();
+        let issues = course.validate();
+        assert!(issues.iter().any(|i| i.contains("lo-nope")), "{issues:?}");
+    }
+}

src/model/item.rs

@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ use serde::de::{self, MapAccess, Visitor};
 use serde::ser::SerializeMap;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize, Serializer};
 
+use crate::course::Reference;
 use crate::date::Date;
 use crate::hash::fingerprint;
 use crate::taxonomy::{
@@ -44,9 +45,28 @@ pub struct Item {
 
     /// Revision counter, bumped whenever the content changes in a way that
     /// invalidates pooled statistics.
-    #[serde(default = "one_u32")]
+    /// Retained only so a pre-2.0 bank still loads. Ignored.
+    ///
+    /// A version number on a question answered the wrong question. It recorded
+    /// that *something* changed without constraining what, which meant an item
+    /// at version 3 might have a reworded distractor — fair, the statistics
+    /// still describe the same question — or a reworded stem, which makes it a
+    /// different question wearing the same id. Since 2.0 the stem *is* the
+    /// identity: reword it and you have a new item, with a new id and
+    /// [`Item::supersedes`] pointing back. [`Item::stem_digest`] is what
+    /// enforces that, against the seals of every administration.
+    ///
+    /// `coursebank migrate stems` removes it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
     pub version: u32,
 
+    /// The item this one replaces, when it is a rewording of an earlier stem.
+    ///
+    /// Lineage rather than versioning: both items stay in the bank, each with
+    /// its own statistics, and a report can say which one a cohort answered.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub supersedes: Option<String>,
+
     /// Workflow state; only [`Status::Approved`] items may be assembled.
     pub status: Status,
 
@@ -137,7 +157,14 @@ pub struct Item {
     pub design: Option<Design>,
 
     /// What the evidence says, accumulated across administrations.
-    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    /// What the statistics say, filled in from `analysis/` at load.
+    ///
+    /// Read from the store and never written back: `skip_serializing` means a
+    /// bank file cannot acquire a `calibration:` block by being round-tripped
+    /// through this type. A bank is a reviewed artifact whose diff should be a
+    /// change of intent, and every grading run would otherwise produce a diff
+    /// on it. See [`crate::calibration`].
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
     pub calibration: Option<Calibration>,
 
     /// The last review decision recorded for this item.
@@ -145,7 +172,16 @@ pub struct Item {
     pub review: Option<Review>,
 
     /// Append-only change log.
-    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    /// Retained only so a pre-2.0 bank still loads. Ignored.
+    ///
+    /// A hand-maintained change log inside a version-controlled file, every
+    /// entry of which duplicated what `git log -p` already knew, with no
+    /// guarantee of agreeing with it. What git cannot express is a claim about
+    /// the item rather than a record of an edit, and that has its own fields:
+    /// [`Item::retired`] and [`Item::supersedes`].
+    ///
+    /// `coursebank migrate stems` removes it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing)]
     pub history: Vec<HistoryEntry>,
 
     /// The author of record.
@@ -170,7 +206,17 @@ pub struct Item {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
 pub struct Choice {
-    /// Option letter, `A` through `H`.
+    /// The option's id, unique within its item: `o-fourth-line`.
+    ///
+    /// A name rather than a position. Until 2.0 this was a letter, which put a
+    /// position in a field that pooled statistics, student feedback, and
+    /// `credit_overrides` all join on — so reordering a YAML block silently
+    /// moved the misconception recorded against one option onto another. The
+    /// letter a student sees is derived per form from the form's seed and lives
+    /// in the seal; see [`crate::seal::printed_letter`].
+    ///
+    /// A single letter `A` through `H` still loads, so a bank migrates when you
+    /// run `coursebank migrate options` rather than when you upgrade.
     pub id: String,
 
     /// The option text.
@@ -218,6 +264,17 @@ pub struct Choice {
     /// Your a priori guess at how often this option is chosen.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub selection_rate_expected: Option<f64>,
+
+    /// Why this option is no longer drawn, when it is not.
+    ///
+    /// A retired option stays in the file forever. It has to: a seal and four
+    /// terms of response rows refer to it by id, and deleting it would turn
+    /// every one of those references into a dangling one. What retirement does
+    /// is take it out of the pool an assessment draws from, with the reason
+    /// attached — "selected by 1 of 96 across two administrations" is a finding
+    /// about the option, and the place for it is next to the option.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub retired: Option<Retirement>,
 }
 
 impl Choice {
@@ -319,6 +376,19 @@ impl Citation {
             (None, None) => String::new(),
         }
     }
+
+    /// The link for this location, resolved against the work it points into.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `reference` - the work, looked up from the citation key.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The most specific link available. See [`Reference::href`].
+    pub fn href(&self, reference: &Reference) -> Option<String> {
+        reference.href(self.url.as_deref(), self.path.as_deref())
+    }
 }
 
 /// Writes a citation as a mapping, or as a bare string when that is all it holds.
@@ -553,6 +623,89 @@ pub struct Calibration {
     /// Machine-detected problems.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
     pub flags: Vec<Flag>,
+
+    /// One record per option set ever administered.
+    ///
+    /// What the flat fields above cannot express once options are a pool. A
+    /// stem shown with distractors `{third, second, first}` is a measurably
+    /// easier item than the same stem with `{third, plus-line, line-two}`, so a
+    /// p-value pooled across both is the average of two different questions.
+    /// Statistics are computed and compared per variant; the flat fields remain
+    /// as the pre-2.0 summary, and for an item whose pool is its form the two
+    /// agree.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub variants: Vec<VariantCalibration>,
+
+    /// One record per option, pooled across every set it appeared in.
+    ///
+    /// The capability the pool is worth the trouble for. Selection rates are
+    /// shares of a fixed set, so they are only comparable *within* a variant —
+    /// which means this view supports exactly one kind of claim, and it is the
+    /// useful one: this option draws nobody, anywhere. That is the evidence
+    /// that retires a distractor, and one administration cannot supply it.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "std::collections::BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub options: std::collections::BTreeMap<String, OptionHistory>,
+}
+
+/// Statistics for one option set, as administered.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct VariantCalibration {
+    /// The digest this record describes. See [`Item::variant_digest`].
+    pub variant: String,
+    /// The option ids keyed correct.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub key: Vec<String>,
+    /// The option ids offered alongside them.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub distractors: Vec<String>,
+    /// The administrations pooled into these numbers.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub administrations: Vec<String>,
+    /// Examinees pooled.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub n_examinees: Option<usize>,
+    /// Proportion correct.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub p_value: Option<f64>,
+    /// Corrected item-total point-biserial correlation.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub point_biserial: Option<f64>,
+    /// Upper-minus-lower-group discrimination index.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub discrimination_index: Option<f64>,
+    /// Per-option behaviour within this set, keyed by option id.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "std::collections::BTreeMap::is_empty")]
+    pub option_stats: std::collections::BTreeMap<String, OptionStat>,
+    /// Fitted item response theory parameters for this set.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub irt: Option<IrtParams>,
+    /// Machine-detected problems with this set.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub flags: Vec<Flag>,
+}
+
+/// What one option has done across every set it has appeared in.
+///
+/// Deliberately coarse. Averaging selection rates across variants is not
+/// meaningful — each is a share of a different set — so `mean_selection_rate`
+/// is a summary for reading, not a statistic to act on. `never_chosen` is the
+/// one field that carries weight, and it needs several administrations to earn.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct OptionHistory {
+    /// How many distinct variants this option has appeared in.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub appearances: usize,
+    /// Examinees who saw it, summed across those variants.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub n_examinees: usize,
+    /// Mean of its within-variant selection rates. For reading only.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub mean_selection_rate: Option<f64>,
+    /// Whether it has never been chosen, anywhere.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "is_false")]
+    pub never_chosen: bool,
 }
 
 /// How one option behaved.
@@ -661,7 +814,7 @@ pub struct Retirement {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
 pub struct HistoryEntry {
-    /// The version this change produced.
+    /// The version this change produced. Ignored since 2.0.
     pub version: u32,
     /// When it was made.
     pub date: Date,
@@ -672,6 +825,32 @@ pub struct HistoryEntry {
     pub change: String,
 }
 
+/// The separator a pre-2.0 bank-qualified item id used: `b-1-2::q-fastq-line`.
+pub const LEGACY_QUALIFIER: &str = "::";
+
+/// An item id with any pre-2.0 bank qualifier removed.
+///
+/// Until 2.0 an item was named `bank::item`, which made the file it happened to
+/// live in part of its identity — and therefore part of the join key on every
+/// row of response data ever collected. Moving a question between banks renamed
+/// it. Since 2.0 the id names the item course-wide and the bank is only where it
+/// is kept, so anything reading an old id strips the qualifier rather than
+/// failing to match.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `id` - an item id in either form.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The part after the qualifier, or the whole id when there is none.
+pub fn canonical_id(id: &str) -> &str {
+    match id.split_once(LEGACY_QUALIFIER) {
+        Some((_, rest)) => rest,
+        None => id,
+    }
+}
+
 impl Item {
     /// Builds a draft item with everything optional left empty.
     ///
@@ -725,6 +904,7 @@ impl Item {
             author: None,
             notes_private: None,
             retired: None,
+            supersedes: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -758,19 +938,38 @@ impl Item {
         out
     }
 
-    /// Looks up an option by letter.
+    /// Looks up an option by id.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
-    /// * `letter` - the option id, case insensitive.
+    /// * `id` - the option id. A pre-2.0 letter matches case-insensitively,
+    ///   which a slug never needs but a hand-typed `d` does.
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
     /// The option, or `None`.
-    pub fn option(&self, letter: &str) -> Option<&Choice> {
+    pub fn option(&self, id: &str) -> Option<&Choice> {
         self.options
             .iter()
-            .find(|o| o.id.eq_ignore_ascii_case(letter))
+            .find(|o| o.id == id)
+            .or_else(|| self.options.iter().find(|o| o.id.eq_ignore_ascii_case(id)))
+    }
+
+    /// Whether an option id is a pre-2.0 letter rather than a name.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `id` - the option id.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// `true` for `A` through `H`.
+    pub fn is_legacy_option_id(id: &str) -> bool {
+        id.len() == 1
+            && id
+                .chars()
+                .next()
+                .is_some_and(|c| c.is_ascii_uppercase() && c <= 'H')
     }
 
     /// Whether the item keys more than one option.
@@ -834,6 +1033,159 @@ impl Item {
         fingerprint(parts.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()))
     }
 
+    /// The options an assessment administers, in the order the bank declares
+    /// them.
+    ///
+    /// Since 2.0 `options` is a *pool*: it may hold several defensible keys and
+    /// more distractors than any one form shows, and which of them a student
+    /// saw is a property of the placement rather than of the item. Everything
+    /// that renders, seals, decodes, or scores an administration has to work
+    /// from this rather than from `options`, or the paper and the key disagree.
+    ///
+    /// Bank order, not administered order: the per-form permutation is
+    /// [`crate::select::option_order`]'s business, and keeping the two separate
+    /// is what lets one item appear on three forms with one set of statistics.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `key` - the option ids keyed correct for this administration.
+    /// * `distractors` - the option ids offered alongside them.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The named options, or the whole live pool when `distractors` is empty.
+    ///
+    /// `distractors` is what says the set was chosen, not `key`. A pre-2.0
+    /// record names its key and nothing else — `key: [D]` with no distractor
+    /// list — and it means "all of them, and D is the right one". Reading that
+    /// as "administer D alone" would print a one-option paper for every
+    /// assessment ever recorded.
+    pub fn administered(&self, key: &[String], distractors: &[String]) -> Vec<&Choice> {
+        if distractors.is_empty() {
+            return self
+                .options
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|o| o.retired.is_none())
+                .collect();
+        }
+        self.options
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|o| key.contains(&o.id) || distractors.contains(&o.id))
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    /// The options that may still be drawn.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// Every option not retired, split into candidate keys and distractors.
+    pub fn pool(&self) -> (Vec<&Choice>, Vec<&Choice>) {
+        let live = || self.options.iter().filter(|o| o.retired.is_none());
+        (
+            live().filter(|o| o.correct).collect(),
+            live().filter(|o| !o.correct).collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    /// A digest of the item as one administration showed it.
+    ///
+    /// The pooling key for statistics, and the reason
+    /// [`Item::fingerprint`] cannot be. A stem with distractors
+    /// `{third, second, first}` is a measurably easier item than the same stem
+    /// with `{third, plus-line, line-two}`, so pooling a p-value across both is
+    /// averaging two different questions. Covers the stem, the administered
+    /// options, and which of them was keyed — the last because the same option
+    /// set with a different key is again a different item.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `key` - the option ids keyed correct for this administration.
+    /// * `distractors` - the option ids offered alongside them.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The digest as hex.
+    pub fn variant_digest(&self, key: &[String], distractors: &[String]) -> String {
+        let mut parts = vec![self.stem_digest()];
+        let mut shown: Vec<&Choice> = self.administered(key, distractors);
+        shown.sort_by(|a, b| a.id.cmp(&b.id));
+        for option in shown {
+            let keyed = if key.is_empty() {
+                option.correct
+            } else {
+                key.contains(&option.id)
+            };
+            parts.push(format!(
+                "{}|{}|{}",
+                option.id,
+                if keyed { "1" } else { "0" },
+                option.text.trim()
+            ));
+        }
+        fingerprint(parts.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()))
+    }
+
+    /// A digest of what the item asks, without its options.
+    ///
+    /// The identity check. [`Item::fingerprint`] covers the options too, which
+    /// is right for calibration — reword a distractor and the pooled selection
+    /// rates no longer describe what students saw — but wrong for identity,
+    /// because a question whose distractors changed is still the same question.
+    /// This covers the stem and the stimulus, and nothing else.
+    ///
+    /// Compared against the digest each seal recorded, which is what makes
+    /// "a reworded stem is a new stem" a rule the tool enforces rather than a
+    /// convention that decays.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The digest as hex.
+    pub fn stem_digest(&self) -> String {
+        let mut parts: Vec<String> = vec![self.stem.trim().to_string()];
+        if let Some(s) = &self.stimulus {
+            parts.push(format!("stimulus:{s}"));
+        }
+        fingerprint(parts.iter().map(|s| s.as_str()))
+    }
+
+    /// The calibration recorded for one option set.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `variant` - the digest from [`Item::variant_digest`].
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The record, or `None` when this set has not been calibrated.
+    pub fn calibration_for(&self, variant: &str) -> Option<&VariantCalibration> {
+        self.calibration
+            .as_ref()?
+            .variants
+            .iter()
+            .find(|v| v.variant == variant)
+    }
+
+    /// Whether a variant's recorded statistics still describe it.
+    ///
+    /// Staleness gets *narrower* with a pool rather than wider: rewording one
+    /// distractor used to invalidate the item's whole calibration, and now it
+    /// invalidates only the sets that distractor appeared in.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `variant` - the digest to check.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// `false` only when a record exists for that digest and the digest no
+    /// longer matches what the option ids now say.
+    pub fn variant_is_current(&self, variant: &str) -> bool {
+        match self.calibration_for(variant) {
+            Some(record) => variant == self.variant_digest(&record.key, &record.distractors),
+            None => true,
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Whether the recorded calibration matches the current content.
     ///
     /// # Returns
@@ -889,16 +1241,20 @@ impl Item {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Appends a change-log entry and bumps the version.
+    /// Appends a change-log entry.
+    ///
+    /// Kept for the pre-2.0 banks that still carry a `history:` block, so
+    /// reading one and writing it back does not silently drop entries. New
+    /// entries belong in a commit message.
     ///
     /// # Arguments
     ///
     /// * `change` - a description of what changed.
     /// * `author` - who made the change.
     pub fn record_change(&mut self, change: &str, author: Option<&str>) {
-        self.version += 1;
+        let version = self.history.iter().map(|h| h.version).max().unwrap_or(0) + 1;
         self.history.push(HistoryEntry {
-            version: self.version,
+            version,
             date: Date::today(),
             author: author.map(|a| a.to_string()),
             change: change.to_string(),
@@ -906,9 +1262,6 @@ impl Item {
     }
 }
 
-fn one_u32() -> u32 {
-    1
-}
 fn default_format() -> Format {
     Format::SingleBestAnswer
 }
@@ -938,7 +1291,6 @@ options:
     #[test]
     fn minimal_item_parses_with_defaults() {
         let it = item(MINIMAL);
-        assert_eq!(it.version, 1);
         assert_eq!(it.format, Format::SingleBestAnswer);
         assert!(!it.bonus);
         assert_eq!(it.key_letters(), vec!["A"]);
@@ -1010,6 +1362,101 @@ options:
         assert_eq!(a.fingerprint(), b.fingerprint());
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn a_pool_administers_a_subset_and_defaults_to_everything() {
+        let mut it = item(MINIMAL);
+        let all: Vec<String> = it.options.iter().map(|o| o.id.clone()).collect();
+
+        // Unstated means the whole pool, which is what a pre-2.0 record meant.
+        assert_eq!(it.administered(&[], &[]).len(), all.len());
+
+        // A retired option leaves the pool but not the file.
+        it.options[1].retired = Some(Retirement {
+            on: Date::new(2026, 9, 20).unwrap(),
+            reason: "chosen by 1 of 96 across two administrations".into(),
+            replaced_by: None,
+        });
+        let shown = it.administered(&[], &[]);
+        assert_eq!(shown.len(), all.len() - 1);
+        assert!(!shown.iter().any(|o| o.id == all[1]));
+        // Still resolvable: a seal and four terms of rows refer to it.
+        assert!(it.option(&all[1]).is_some());
+
+        // A key with no distractor list is a pre-2.0 record, and it means all
+        // of them. Reading it as "administer the key alone" would print a
+        // one-option paper for every assessment already recorded.
+        assert_eq!(it.administered(&[all[2].clone()], &[]).len(), all.len() - 1);
+
+        // Named explicitly, bank order is kept whatever order the lists are in.
+        let shown = it.administered(&[all[2].clone()], &[all[0].clone()]);
+        assert_eq!(
+            shown.iter().map(|o| o.id.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
+            vec![all[0].clone(), all[2].clone()]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn the_variant_digest_tracks_the_option_set_and_the_stem_does_not() {
+        let it = item(MINIMAL);
+        let ids: Vec<String> = it.options.iter().map(|o| o.id.clone()).collect();
+
+        let one = it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[1].clone()]);
+        let two = it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[2].clone()]);
+        // A different distractor is a different item: same stem, different
+        // difficulty, so pooling a p-value across both would average two
+        // questions.
+        assert_ne!(one, two, "a swapped distractor is a new variant");
+        // The stem is unmoved by any of it.
+        assert_eq!(it.stem_digest(), item(MINIMAL).stem_digest());
+
+        // Order of the lists is not part of the identity.
+        assert_eq!(
+            it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[2].clone(), ids[1].clone()]),
+            it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[1].clone(), ids[2].clone()])
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_variant_goes_stale_alone_rather_than_taking_the_item_with_it() {
+        let mut it = item(MINIMAL);
+        let ids: Vec<String> = it.options.iter().map(|o| o.id.clone()).collect();
+        let one = it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[1].clone()]);
+        let two = it.variant_digest(&[ids[0].clone()], &[ids[2].clone()]);
+
+        it.calibration = Some(Calibration {
+            variants: vec![
+                VariantCalibration {
+                    variant: one.clone(),
+                    key: vec![ids[0].clone()],
+                    distractors: vec![ids[1].clone()],
+                    n_examinees: Some(96),
+                    p_value: Some(0.84),
+                    ..VariantCalibration::default()
+                },
+                VariantCalibration {
+                    variant: two.clone(),
+                    key: vec![ids[0].clone()],
+                    distractors: vec![ids[2].clone()],
+                    n_examinees: Some(32),
+                    ..VariantCalibration::default()
+                },
+            ],
+            ..Calibration::default()
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(it.calibration_for(&one).unwrap().n_examinees, Some(96));
+        assert!(it.calibration_for("nothing-like-this").is_none());
+        assert!(it.variant_is_current(&one));
+        assert!(it.variant_is_current(&two));
+
+        // Rewording the option that only the second set used leaves the first
+        // set's numbers standing. Before the pool, one distractor edit
+        // invalidated every statistic the item had.
+        it.options[2].text = "a different distractor".into();
+        assert!(it.variant_is_current(&one), "the first set never showed it");
+        assert!(!it.variant_is_current(&two));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn stale_calibration_is_detectable() {
         let mut it = item(MINIMAL);
@@ -1053,12 +1500,24 @@ options:
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn record_change_bumps_version_and_logs() {
+    fn the_stem_is_the_identity_rather_than_a_version_number() {
         let mut it = item(MINIMAL);
+        let before = it.stem_digest();
+
+        // A change log entry numbers itself and leaves the item alone: since
+        // 2.0 nothing reads `version`, and rewording a stem is not a version
+        // bump but a new item.
         it.record_change("clarified the stem", Some("Alex"));
-        assert_eq!(it.version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(it.version, 0);
         assert_eq!(it.history.len(), 1);
-        assert_eq!(it.history[0].version, 2);
+        assert_eq!(it.history[0].version, 1);
+        assert_eq!(it.stem_digest(), before);
+
+        // The options are the fingerprint's business, not the stem's.
+        it.options[1].text = "a different distractor".into();
+        assert_eq!(it.stem_digest(), before);
+        it.stem = "What is y?".into();
+        assert_ne!(it.stem_digest(), before);
     }
 
     #[test]

src/model/layout.rs

@@ -3,6 +3,11 @@
 // Source: https://git.scient.ing/education/coursebank
 
 //! The on-disk layout of a course directory.
+//!
+//! Two of these directories hold fragments of the course file rather than files
+//! of their own kind: `lectures/` and `objectives/` are merged into one
+//! [`crate::course::CourseFile`] on load, along with `references.yaml`. See
+//! [`crate::course::fragment`].
 
 use std::path::PathBuf;
 
@@ -35,11 +40,48 @@ impl Layout {
         self.root.join(COURSE_FILE)
     }
 
+    /// Path to `references.yaml`, the bibliography when it is kept out of
+    /// `course.yaml`.
+    ///
+    /// Optional: absent means the course keeps its `references:` section in the
+    /// course file, which is how an unsplit course is arranged.
+    pub fn references_file(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.root.join(crate::course::fragment::REFERENCES_FILE)
+    }
+
+    /// Directory holding one file per lecture.
+    pub fn lectures(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.root.join("lectures")
+    }
+
+    /// Directory holding one file per learning objective.
+    pub fn objectives(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.root.join("objectives")
+    }
+
     /// Directory holding item bank YAML files.
     pub fn banks(&self) -> PathBuf {
         self.root.join("banks")
     }
 
+    /// Directory holding the statistics, which are kept out of the banks.
+    ///
+    /// Committed, unlike [`Layout::data`]: everything under here is a cohort
+    /// aggregate with no student in it. See [`crate::calibration`].
+    pub fn analysis(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.root.join("analysis")
+    }
+
+    /// The pooled per-item calibration store.
+    pub fn calibration_file(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.analysis().join(crate::calibration::CALIBRATION_FILE)
+    }
+
+    /// Directory holding one immutable record per administration.
+    pub fn measurements(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.analysis().join("administrations")
+    }
+
     /// Directory holding assessment records.
     pub fn assessments(&self) -> PathBuf {
         self.root.join("assessments")
@@ -93,6 +135,10 @@ impl Layout {
     pub fn create_all(&self) -> Result<()> {
         for dir in [
             self.root.clone(),
+            self.analysis(),
+            self.measurements(),
+            self.lectures(),
+            self.objectives(),
             self.banks(),
             self.assessments(),
             self.data(),

src/model/seal.rs

@@ -124,6 +124,26 @@ pub struct SealMeta {
     /// from the file's own contents; [`SealFile::verify`] rebuilds a seal from the
     /// live course and compares this against it.
     pub digest: String,
+
+    /// The digests this file had before it was rewritten, oldest first.
+    ///
+    /// A seal is meant to be tamper-evident, which puts a migration that
+    /// renames an id inside it in an awkward position: the id is part of
+    /// [`SealFile::digest_input`], so rewriting the file invalidates the digest
+    /// that vouched for it, and recomputing it quietly would produce a record
+    /// that looks untouched and is not.
+    ///
+    /// So a migration does both — recomputes the digest and leaves the old one
+    /// here. What the seal then says is the honest thing: these are the
+    /// contents, this is what they hash to, and here is what the file hashed to
+    /// before each rewrite. Anyone holding an earlier copy, a backup or a git
+    /// revision, can check it against the right entry.
+    ///
+    /// Deliberately outside [`SealFile::digest_input`]: a field that recorded
+    /// past digests and was itself covered by the current one could not be
+    /// appended to without invalidating what it describes.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
+    pub superseded_digests: Vec<String>,
 }
 
 /// What wrote a seal.
@@ -145,8 +165,16 @@ pub struct SealedItem {
     /// The item's global id.
     pub item: String,
     /// The item version as administered.
+    /// Retained only so a pre-2.0 seal still loads. Ignored when reasoning
+    /// about the item, but still written: [`SealFile::digest_input`] covers it,
+    /// so dropping it on a round trip would invalidate the digest of every
+    /// administration sealed before 2.0.
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub version: Option<u32>,
+
+    /// The stem's digest as administered.
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub stem_digest: Option<String>,
     /// The item's content fingerprint, the same one
     /// [`crate::item::Item::fingerprint`] computes, so a seal and a bank can be
     /// compared without re-hashing either by hand.
@@ -450,6 +478,7 @@ pub fn build(catalog: &Catalog, record: &AssessmentFile, opts: &Options) -> Resu
             content: opts.content,
             dropped,
             digest: String::new(),
+            superseded_digests: Vec::new(),
         },
         items,
         forms: sealed_forms,
@@ -484,7 +513,8 @@ fn sealed_item(
     SealedItem {
         number: placement.number,
         item: placement.item.clone(),
-        version: placement.version.or(Some(item.version)),
+        version: None,
+        stem_digest: Some(item.stem_digest()),
         fingerprint: item.fingerprint(),
         points: placement
             .points
@@ -530,7 +560,9 @@ fn sealed_form(catalog: &Catalog, record: &AssessmentFile, form: &Form) -> Resul
     for (index, placement) in printed.iter().enumerate() {
         let entry = catalog.require(&placement.item)?;
         let item = &entry.item;
-        let n = item.options.len();
+        // The pool is not the paper: seal what this placement administered.
+        let shown = item.administered(&placement.key, &placement.distractors);
+        let n = shown.len();
         let order = select::option_order(form, &placement.item, n);
 
         let canonical_key: BTreeSet<String> = if placement.key.is_empty() {
@@ -542,8 +574,7 @@ fn sealed_form(catalog: &Catalog, record: &AssessmentFile, form: &Form) -> Resul
         let mut options = Vec::with_capacity(n);
         let mut printed_key = Vec::new();
         for (position, source_index) in order.iter().enumerate() {
-            let canonical = item
-                .options
+            let canonical = shown
                 .get(*source_index)
                 .map(|c| c.id.clone())
                 .unwrap_or_else(|| printed_letter(*source_index));
@@ -638,6 +669,33 @@ impl SealFile {
         yaml::read(path)
     }
 
+    /// Loads every seal in a directory, oldest administration first.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `dir` - the seals directory.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// The seals, empty when the directory does not exist.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Propagates load failures, including a seal that does not parse.
+    pub fn load_all(dir: &Path) -> Result<Vec<SealFile>> {
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        for path in crate::yaml::list_yaml(dir)? {
+            out.push(SealFile::load(&path)?);
+        }
+        out.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            a.seal
+                .date
+                .cmp(&b.seal.date)
+                .then(a.seal.assessment.cmp(&b.seal.assessment))
+        });
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
     /// Loads the seal for an assessment, if one has been written.
     ///
     /// Absence is not an error. A course that has never sealed anything should
@@ -719,6 +777,12 @@ impl SealFile {
             self.schema_version, self.seal.assessment, self.seal.course, self.seal.term
         ));
         for item in &self.items {
+            // Appended only when present: a seal written before 2.0 has to keep
+            // producing the input it was digested from, or every older
+            // administration fails verification.
+            if let Some(stem) = &item.stem_digest {
+                buf.push_str(&format!("stem\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{stem}\n", item.number));
+            }
             buf.push_str(&format!(
                 "item\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}{}\u{1f}",
                 item.number,
@@ -744,6 +808,39 @@ impl SealFile {
         buf
     }
 
+    /// Renames the items this seal froze, keeping the digest honest.
+    ///
+    /// The only sanctioned way to rewrite a seal. It recomputes the digest,
+    /// because the ids are part of what the digest covers, and records the
+    /// previous one in [`SealMeta::superseded_digests`], because a recomputed
+    /// digest with no trace of the recompute is a record that claims never to
+    /// have been touched.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `rename` - a map from old item id to new.
+    ///
+    /// # Returns
+    ///
+    /// How many placements were renamed. Zero leaves the file alone, digest
+    /// included.
+    pub fn rename_items(&mut self, rename: &BTreeMap<String, String>) -> usize {
+        let mut renamed = 0;
+        for item in &mut self.items {
+            if let Some(new) = rename.get(&item.item) {
+                item.item = new.clone();
+                renamed += 1;
+            }
+        }
+        if renamed == 0 {
+            return 0;
+        }
+        let previous = std::mem::take(&mut self.seal.digest);
+        self.seal.superseded_digests.push(previous);
+        self.seal.digest = self.recompute_digest();
+        renamed
+    }
+
     /// Recomputes this file's digest from its own contents.
     ///
     /// # Returns
@@ -1152,11 +1249,13 @@ mod tests {
                 content: true,
                 dropped: Vec::new(),
                 digest: String::new(),
+                superseded_digests: Vec::new(),
             },
             items: vec![SealedItem {
                 number: 1,
                 item: "b::q-1".into(),
                 version: Some(1),
+                stem_digest: None,
                 fingerprint: "abc".into(),
                 points: 1.0,
                 bonus: false,
@@ -1299,6 +1398,31 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(short("sha256:0123456789abcdef"), "sha256:01234567");
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn renaming_an_item_recomputes_the_digest_and_says_it_did() {
+        let mut seal = sample();
+        seal.seal.digest = seal.recompute_digest();
+        let original = seal.seal.digest.clone();
+        assert!(seal.check_self().is_empty());
+
+        let mut rename = BTreeMap::new();
+        rename.insert(seal.items[0].item.clone(), "q-renamed".to_string());
+        assert_eq!(seal.rename_items(&rename), 1);
+
+        // The digest covers the ids, so it has to move — and the file has to
+        // admit that it moved rather than looking untouched.
+        assert_eq!(seal.items[0].item, "q-renamed");
+        assert_ne!(seal.seal.digest, original);
+        assert_eq!(seal.seal.superseded_digests, vec![original]);
+        assert!(seal.check_self().is_empty(), "{:?}", seal.check_self());
+
+        // A rename that matches nothing leaves the file entirely alone.
+        let steady = seal.seal.digest.clone();
+        assert_eq!(seal.rename_items(&BTreeMap::new()), 0);
+        assert_eq!(seal.seal.digest, steady);
+        assert_eq!(seal.seal.superseded_digests.len(), 1);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn round_trips_through_yaml() {
         let file = sample();

src/util.rs

@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 //! replaces a dependency that would otherwise need to keep working for as long as
 //! a course repository needs to stay readable.
 
+pub mod citation;
 pub mod date;
 pub mod hash;
 pub mod markup;

src/util/citation.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,330 @@
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Prosperity-3.0.0
+// Copyright Scientific Computing Studio
+// Source: https://git.scient.ing/education/coursebank
+
+//! Pulling a citation apart when it was written as prose.
+//!
+//! A bibliography assembled by hand tends to collect entries like
+//!
+//! ```text
+//! note: 'Nucleic Acids Res 25:3389-3402. doi:10.1093/nar/25.17.3389'
+//! ```
+//!
+//! which is a complete citation in a field that means "anything else worth
+//! saying". Nothing can use it: a reading list cannot link the DOI, an export to
+//! Hayagriva or BibTeX has no journal to put in `parent` or `journal`, and the
+//! `container`, `volume`, `pages`, and `doi` fields sit empty beside it.
+//!
+//! [`parse`] takes such a note apart. What it cannot account for it leaves in
+//! the note, which is the important half of the contract: a note reading
+//! `'Bioinformatics 18:440-445. Origin of spaced seeds.'` yields the journal,
+//! the volume, the pages, and a note that still says where spaced seeds came
+//! from. Nothing is discarded and nothing is invented — an issue number that was
+//! never written down stays absent, even when a publisher's DOI happens to
+//! encode one.
+
+/// The parts of a citation recovered from a note.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct Parsed {
+    /// The journal, proceedings, or book the work appeared in.
+    pub container: Option<String>,
+    /// The volume.
+    pub volume: Option<String>,
+    /// The page range, as `first-last`.
+    pub pages: Option<String>,
+    /// The DOI, bare.
+    pub doi: Option<String>,
+    /// What the note still says after the citation is removed.
+    pub note: Option<String>,
+}
+
+/// Takes a citation apart, leaving the rest of the note alone.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `note` - the note as written.
+/// * `year` - the record's year, which is how a trailing year is recognized as
+///   part of a conference name rather than part of the title of the venue.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The parts found. Every field is independently optional: a note that carries
+/// only a DOI yields only a DOI.
+pub fn parse(note: &str, year: Option<u32>) -> Parsed {
+    let mut out = Parsed::default();
+    let mut rest = note.trim().to_string();
+
+    if let Some((container, volume, pages, tail)) = citation(&rest) {
+        out.container = Some(container);
+        out.volume = Some(volume);
+        out.pages = Some(pages);
+        rest = tail;
+    }
+
+    if let Some((doi, tail)) = doi(&rest) {
+        out.doi = Some(doi);
+        rest = tail;
+    }
+
+    // A venue with no volume or pages — a conference, usually — is named by the
+    // clause that ends in the year the work was published.
+    if out.container.is_none() {
+        if let Some(y) = year {
+            if let Some((container, tail)) = venue(&rest, y) {
+                out.container = Some(container);
+                rest = tail;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // The year belongs to the record, not to the name of the venue.
+    if let (Some(container), Some(y)) = (&out.container, year) {
+        let suffix = format!(" {y}");
+        if let Some(trimmed) = container.strip_suffix(&suffix) {
+            out.container = Some(trimmed.trim_end().to_string());
+        }
+    }
+
+    let rest = rest.trim().trim_start_matches('.').trim().to_string();
+    out.note = (!rest.is_empty()).then_some(rest);
+    out
+}
+
+/// Finds `Journal 25:3389-3402` or `Journal 48, 443-453` at the start.
+///
+/// The volume is the first digit run that follows a space and is followed by a
+/// separator and a page range. Requiring the whole shape is what keeps a year in
+/// a conference name (`Proc. FOCS 2000.`) from being read as a volume.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The container, volume, page range, and whatever followed.
+fn citation(text: &str) -> Option<(String, String, String, String)> {
+    let bytes = text.as_bytes();
+    let mut at = 0;
+
+    while at < bytes.len() {
+        // A volume follows a space, so that a digit inside a name is not one.
+        if !(bytes[at].is_ascii_digit() && at > 0 && bytes[at - 1] == b' ') {
+            at += 1;
+            continue;
+        }
+        let volume_start = at;
+        let volume_end = digits(bytes, volume_start);
+        let mut cursor = spaces(bytes, volume_end);
+
+        // The separator between volume and pages is a colon or a comma.
+        if cursor < bytes.len() && (bytes[cursor] == b':' || bytes[cursor] == b',') {
+            cursor = spaces(bytes, cursor + 1);
+            let first_start = cursor;
+            let first_end = digits(bytes, first_start);
+            if first_end > first_start {
+                let dash = text[first_end..]
+                    .strip_prefix('-')
+                    .or_else(|| text[first_end..].strip_prefix('\u{2013}'));
+                if let Some(after_dash) = dash {
+                    let last_offset = text.len() - after_dash.len();
+                    let last_end = digits(bytes, last_offset);
+                    if last_end > last_offset {
+                        let container = text[..volume_start].trim_end_matches([' ', ',']);
+                        if !container.is_empty() {
+                            return Some((
+                                container.to_string(),
+                                text[volume_start..volume_end].to_string(),
+                                format!(
+                                    "{}-{}",
+                                    &text[first_start..first_end],
+                                    &text[last_offset..last_end]
+                                ),
+                                text[last_end..].to_string(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        at = volume_end;
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Finds a `doi:10.…` anywhere in the text.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The DOI and the text with it removed.
+fn doi(text: &str) -> Option<(String, String)> {
+    let lower = text.to_ascii_lowercase();
+    let at = lower.find("doi:")?;
+    let after = text[at + 4..].trim_start();
+    let offset = text.len() - after.len();
+    let end = after
+        .find(char::is_whitespace)
+        .map(|n| offset + n)
+        .unwrap_or(text.len());
+
+    let doi = text[offset..end].trim_end_matches('.');
+    if !doi.starts_with("10.") {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let mut remainder = String::from(text[..at].trim_end());
+    let tail = text[end..].trim();
+    if !tail.is_empty() {
+        if !remainder.is_empty() {
+            remainder.push(' ');
+        }
+        remainder.push_str(tail);
+    }
+    Some((doi.to_string(), remainder))
+}
+
+/// Finds a leading clause ending in the publication year: `Proc. FOCS 2000.`
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The clause without its trailing period, and whatever followed.
+fn venue(text: &str, year: u32) -> Option<(String, String)> {
+    let needle = format!("{year}.");
+    let at = text.find(&needle)?;
+    let clause = text[..at + needle.len() - 1].trim();
+    if clause.is_empty() {
+        return None;
+    }
+    Some((
+        clause.to_string(),
+        text[at + needle.len()..].trim().to_string(),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// The end of a run of ASCII digits starting at `from`.
+fn digits(bytes: &[u8], from: usize) -> usize {
+    let mut at = from;
+    while at < bytes.len() && bytes[at].is_ascii_digit() {
+        at += 1;
+    }
+    at
+}
+
+/// The end of a run of spaces starting at `from`.
+fn spaces(bytes: &[u8], from: usize) -> usize {
+    let mut at = from;
+    while at < bytes.len() && bytes[at] == b' ' {
+        at += 1;
+    }
+    at
+}
+
+/// Whether a note still looks like it is carrying a citation.
+///
+/// Used by validation to say so, rather than leaving a note that a reading list
+/// cannot link and an export cannot use.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `note` - the note as written.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// `true` when a volume and page range, or a DOI, can be found in it.
+pub fn looks_like_a_citation(note: &str) -> bool {
+    citation(note.trim()).is_some() || doi(note.trim()).is_some()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    /// Every article note in a real course bibliography, which is where the
+    /// shapes below come from. Two separator styles, DOIs in three positions,
+    /// a conference with no volume, and prose that has to survive.
+    #[test]
+    fn a_journal_citation_comes_apart() {
+        let p = parse(
+            "Nucleic Acids Res 25:3389-3402. doi:10.1093/nar/25.17.3389",
+            Some(1997),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(p.container.as_deref(), Some("Nucleic Acids Res"));
+        assert_eq!(p.volume.as_deref(), Some("25"));
+        assert_eq!(p.pages.as_deref(), Some("3389-3402"));
+        assert_eq!(p.doi.as_deref(), Some("10.1093/nar/25.17.3389"));
+        assert_eq!(p.note, None);
+        // The DOI encodes volume 25, issue 17. Nothing infers the issue from
+        // it: a field nobody wrote down stays empty.
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn an_abbreviation_keeps_its_final_period() {
+        let p = parse("J. Mol. Biol. 48, 443-453.", Some(1970));
+        assert_eq!(p.container.as_deref(), Some("J. Mol. Biol."));
+        assert_eq!(p.volume.as_deref(), Some("48"));
+        assert_eq!(p.pages.as_deref(), Some("443-453"));
+        assert_eq!(p.note, None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prose_after_a_citation_stays_in_the_note() {
+        let p = parse(
+            "Bioinformatics 18:440-445. Origin of spaced seeds.",
+            Some(2002),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(p.container.as_deref(), Some("Bioinformatics"));
+        assert_eq!(p.note.as_deref(), Some("Origin of spaced seeds."));
+
+        // A caveat the author wrote is the last thing to throw away.
+        let p = parse("J Mol Biol 215:403-410. Verify before use.", Some(1990));
+        assert_eq!(p.note.as_deref(), Some("Verify before use."));
+
+        let p = parse(
+            "Bioinformatics 25:2078-2079. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btp352. Author list is the \
+             core set plus the 1000 Genomes Data Processing Subgroup; verify.",
+            Some(2009),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(p.doi.as_deref(), Some("10.1093/bioinformatics/btp352"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            p.note.as_deref(),
+            Some(
+                "Author list is the core set plus the 1000 Genomes Data Processing Subgroup; \
+                 verify."
+            )
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_conference_has_a_year_where_a_volume_would_be() {
+        let p = parse(
+            "Proc. FOCS 2000. doi:10.1109/SFCS.2000.892127. The FM-index. Theory background.",
+            Some(2000),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(p.container.as_deref(), Some("Proc. FOCS"));
+        // No volume and no pages were written, so none are invented — and the
+        // 2000 in the DOI is not mistaken for either.
+        assert_eq!(p.volume, None);
+        assert_eq!(p.pages, None);
+        assert_eq!(p.doi.as_deref(), Some("10.1109/SFCS.2000.892127"));
+        assert_eq!(p.note.as_deref(), Some("The FM-index. Theory background."));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_note_with_nothing_to_find_is_left_whole() {
+        let p = parse("Origin of the MAPQ score.", Some(2008));
+        assert_eq!(p.container, None);
+        assert_eq!(p.note.as_deref(), Some("Origin of the MAPQ score."));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn a_multi_word_journal_is_not_cut_at_a_number() {
+        let p = parse("Advances in Mathematics 20, 367-387.", Some(1976));
+        assert_eq!(p.container.as_deref(), Some("Advances in Mathematics"));
+        assert_eq!(p.volume.as_deref(), Some("20"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn what_validation_looks_for() {
+        assert!(looks_like_a_citation("Nat Methods 12:59-60."));
+        assert!(looks_like_a_citation("doi:10.1038/nmeth.3176"));
+        assert!(!looks_like_a_citation("Origin of minimizers."));
+        assert!(!looks_like_a_citation("Verify before use."));
+        // A page range with no volume is not a citation shape.
+        assert!(!looks_like_a_citation("see pages 12-14"));
+    }
+}

src/util/yaml.rs

@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ use std::fs;
 use std::path::Path;
 
 use serde::de::{self, DeserializeOwned, Visitor};
-use serde::{Deserializer, Serialize};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer, Serialize};
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 
@@ -61,6 +61,26 @@ pub fn write<T: Serialize>(path: &Path, value: &T) -> Result<()> {
     fs::write(path, text).map_err(|e| Error::io(path, e))
 }
 
+/// Serializes a value to a YAML string.
+///
+/// Used where the caller needs to put something in front of the document, such
+/// as the banner on a generated file.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `value` - the value to serialize.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The YAML text.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns [`Error::Other`] if the value cannot be represented as YAML.
+pub fn to_string<T: Serialize>(value: &T) -> Result<String> {
+    serde_yaml_ng::to_string(value).map_err(Error::other)
+}
+
 /// Deserializes a JSON file into any type.
 ///
 /// Used only for importing legacy banks and for reading emitted schemas back in
@@ -202,6 +222,33 @@ where
     d.deserialize_any(V)
 }
 
+/// Deserializes an optional scalar as a string, quoted or not.
+///
+/// The [`flexible_string`] of a field that may be absent, which is what a
+/// fragment's `schema_version` is: one file in a course declares it and the
+/// rest inherit.
+///
+/// # Arguments
+///
+/// * `d` - the deserializer.
+///
+/// # Returns
+///
+/// The value as a string, or `None`.
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// Returns a deserialization error for non-scalar input.
+pub fn flexible_string_opt<'de, D>(d: D) -> std::result::Result<Option<String>, D::Error>
+where
+    D: Deserializer<'de>,
+{
+    #[derive(serde::Deserialize)]
+    struct Wrapper(#[serde(deserialize_with = "flexible_string")] String);
+
+    Ok(Option::<Wrapper>::deserialize(d)?.map(|w| w.0))
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use super::*;